Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Greek: ?????????????? ; September 129 AD - c. 200 / c. 216 ) , Often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon ( ), was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Arguably the most successful of all the ancient medical researchers, Galen influenced the development of various disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.
Aelius Nicon's son, a rich architect with a scientific interest, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in Pergamon (now Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to various medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and was eventually given a personal doctor position for several emperors.
Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was fundamentally influenced by the current theory of humor (also known as four humors - black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm), as suggested by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for over 1300 years. His anatomical reports, primarily based on monkey surgery, especially the Barbary monkeys, and pigs, remain undeniable until 1543, when the description and illustration of human dissection prints were published in the seminal work of De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius in which the physiological theory Galen is accommodated on this new observation. Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system remains unchallenged until ca. 1242, when Ibn al-Nafis published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li 'Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in the Avicenna Canon), where he reported his findings on pulmonary circulation.
Galen saw himself as a physician and philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Doctor is Also a Philosopher . Galen is particularly interested in the debates between rationalist and empirical medical sects, and the use of direct observation, dissection and dissection of living things is a complex middle ground between the extremes of both points of view. Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original language, although many are destroyed and some that are credited to him are believed to be false. Although there was some debate about the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died.
In medieval Europe, Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the university curriculum of medieval physicians, but because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, they suffered greatly from stasis and intellectual stagnation. However, in the Eastern Roman Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate they continue to be studied and followed. Some of Galen's ideas are not true: he does not dissect the human body. The Greek and Roman taboo meant that the surgery was usually forbidden in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students in Bologna began to open the human body, and Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275-1326) produced the first anatomy known textbook based on on human dissection.
The original Greek text Galen gained a new reputation during the early modern period. In the 1530s, the Austrian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took the project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. The most famous work of Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica , is strongly influenced by the writing and the Galenic form.
Video Galen
Kehidupan awal: AD 129-161
Galen Name ??????? , Gal? Nos comes from the adjectives " ??????? ", "quiet".
Galen describes his early life in On the love of mind . He was born in September 129. His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy noble, an architect and builder, with an eclectic interest including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture, and literature. Galen describes his father as "a very friendly, fair, kind, and kind person". At that time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual center, renowned for its library, second after that in Alexandria, and attracted both the Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His research also took his own, each major philosophical system at the time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and was careful to expose it to the influence of literature and philosophy. However, Galen states that around 145 AD, his father dreamed where the god Asclepius (Aesculapius) appeared and ordered Nicon to send his son to study medicine. Again, no expense was spared, and following his previous liberal education, at 16 he began studying at a prestigious local sanctuary or asclepieum dedicated to Asclepius, the god of medicine, as ?????????? ( therapeutes , or officers) for four years. There he was under the influence of the likes of Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus, and Satyrus. Asclepiea serves as a spa or sanitoria where sick people will come to look for priestly ministers. Rome often visits temples in Pergamon to seek medical help from illness and illness. It is also the place of famous people like Claudius Charax historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, and Cuspius Rufinus Konsul.
In 148, when he was 19 years old, his father died, leaving him independently rich. He then followed the advice he found in the teachings of Hippocrates and traveled widely and traveled including destinations such as Smyrna (now Izmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now ÃÆ'â € ukurova), Cyprus, and finally Alexandria's great medical school, himself to various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, age 28, he returned to Pergamon as a doctor to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of Asia's most influential and wealthiest men. Galen claims that High Priest picked him over other doctors after he destroyed the apes and challenged other doctors to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen conducted his own operation and thus won the support of the High Priest of Asia. For four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and precautions, as well as the anatomy of life, and the treatment of severe fractures and traumas, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred when he held the post, compared to sixty at the time of his predecessor, a result generally considered to derive from the attention he paid for their wounds. At the same time he studied medicine and theoretical philosophy.
Maps Galen
Years later: AD 162-217
Galen went to Rome in 162 and made him a practicing physician. Her impatience brought her into conflict with other doctors and she felt threatened by them. His demonstration there made the less skilled and more conservative doctors in the city become antagonists. When Galen's hostility with Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be alienated or poisoned, so he left town.
Rome has been involved in a foreign war in 161; Marcus Aurelius and his partner Lucius Verus are in the north against Marcomanni. During the fall of 169 when Roman troops returned to Aquileia, a great plague erupted, and the emperor called Galen back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as a court doctor. The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving reports that Asclepius opposed the project. He was left to act as a doctor to the heir of the Commodus empire. Here in court that Galen writes extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague.
Galen was the doctor for Commodus for much of the emperor's life and cured his common illness. According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3-4, in about 189, under the rule of Commodus, an epidemic occurred at the peak that killed 2,000 people every day in Rome. Most likely this is the same plague that struck Rome during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.
Galen became a doctor for Septimius Severus during his reign in Rome. Galen praises Severus and Caracalla for storing medical supplies for their friends and mentions the three cases they used in 198.
The Antonine Plague
The Antonine Plague is named after the Antony family name, Marcus Aurelius. It is also known as the Galen Plague and holds an important place in the history of medicine because of its relationship with Galen. He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first occurred in 166 AD, and was also present in the winter of 168-69 during the outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia. He has experience with the epidemic, referring to it as being durable, and describing his symptoms and his treatment of it. Unfortunately, his references to the epidemic were scattered and brief. Galen does not attempt to present the description of the disease so it can be recognized in future generations; he is more interested in the treatment and physical effects of his illness. For example, in his writings about a young man suffering from an outbreak, he concentrates on internal and external ulcer treatment. According to Niebuhr, "the epidemic of this disease must have gone berserk with enormous anger, it brings innumerable victims.The ancient world never recovered from the blow caused by the plague that visited it during the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of the outbreak is 7-10 percent; outbreaks in 165-168 will cause about 3.5 to 5 million deaths. Otto Seeck believed that more than half of the imperial population was destroyed. J. F. Gilliam believed that the Antonine plague might have caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century. It is believed that the Antonine Plague is a smallpox, because although the description is incomplete, Galen provided enough information to allow for the identification of a strong disease.
Galen noted that exanthema covered the entire body of the victim and was usually black. The exanthem becomes rough and shabby where there is no ulceration. He states that those who will survive develop black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of the blood that wet the pustular fever blisters. His writings state that the blisters that arise are present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash is close to that described by Thucydides. Galen describes gastrointestinal symptoms through diarrhea and stool patients. If the stool is very black, the patient dies. He says that the amount of black stool varies. It depends on the severity of the bowel lesion. He observes that in cases where the stool is not black, a black exanthema appears. Galen describes symptoms of fever, vomiting, foul-smelling breath, inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, coughing, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.
Eudemus
When the philosopher moved Eudemus fell ill with quartan fever, Galen felt obliged to treat him "because he is my teacher and I happen to live nearby." Galen wrote: "I'm back in the case of Eudemus, he's really attacked by three quartan ague attacks, and the doctors have handed him over, now it's the middle of winter." Some Roman doctors criticized Galen for his use of prognosis in the treatment of Eudemus. This practice is contrary to the current standard of care, which relies on forecasts and mysticism. Galen replied to his opponents by defending his own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "To diagnose, one must observe and reason, this is the basis of his criticism of the doctors who continued alogos and askeptos." However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflicts with these doctors could lead to his killing. "Eudemus says this, and more on the same effect, he adds that if they can not harm me with immoral behavior, they will continue the attempt to poison.Among other things, he told me that, about ten years earlier , a young man has come to town and has given, as I am a practical demonstration of our art resources; this young man was killed with poison, along with two servants who accompanied him. "
Garcia-Ballester says the use of prognosis from Galen follows: "In modern medicine, we are used to distinguish between diagnostic assessments (scientific knowledge about what the patient has) and prognostic judgments (guesses about what will happen to him.) Galen, like Hippocratics, , for him, to understand the technical clinical case, 'to diagnose', is, inter alia, to know with more or less certainty of outcomes for patients, 'to forecast'., then, is one of the important problems and the most important goal of diagnosis Galenic. Galen is concerned to distinguish it from forecasts or forecasts, both to improve the diagnosis technically and to enhance the reputation of the physician. "
Death
The lexicon of the 11th century states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would have put his death around 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however , to be false) for events 204. There are also statements in Arab sources that he died in Sicily at the age of 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing, which means he died around 217. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in Palermo is still well maintained in the 10th century. Nutton believes that "On Theriac to Piso" is original, that Arab sources are true, and that Suda has mistakenly interpreted 70 years of Galen's career in the Arab tradition as referring to his entire lifetime. Boudon-Millot more or less agrees and prefers the 216th.
Contribution to medicine
Galen contributed in large numbers to the understanding of Hippocratic pathology. Under Hippocrates' body humor theory, the difference in human mood comes as a consequence of imbalance in one of the four body fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and mucus. Galen promotes this theory and the typology of human temperament. In Galen's view, the imbalance of every humor relates to a particular human temperament (blood - optimism, black bile - melancholy, yellow bile - choleric, and phlegm). Thus, individuals with optimistic temperaments are extroverted and social; the irritable person has energy, passion, and charisma; melancholy is creative, kind, and caring; and apathetic temperament is characterized by dependence, kindness, and compassion.
Galen's main concern is human anatomy, but Roman law prohibits dissection of human corpses since about 150 BC. Because of these restrictions, Galen performs anatomical dissection of living things (live surgery) and dead animals, mostly focusing on pigs and primates. This work is useful because Galen believes that the anatomical structure of these animals is very similar to humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the trachea and the first showed that the larynx formed the sound. In one experiment, Galen used a bellows to inflate the lungs of dead animals. Galen's work on anatomy remained unmatched and unmatched until the 16th century in Europe. In the mid-16th century, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged Galen's anatomical knowledge by performing surgery on human corpses. This investigation allowed Vesalius to refute Galen's anatomical aspects.
Among Galen's substantial contributions to drugs is his work on the circulatory system. He was the first to recognize that there is a clear distinction between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood. Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, the nervous system, the respiratory system, and other structures, his work contains scientific errors. Galen believes the circulatory system consists of two separate one-way distribution systems, rather than a single integrated circulation system. He believes the venous blood will be produced in the liver, from which it is distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He points out that arterial blood comes from the heart, from which it is distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. Blood is then regenerated in the liver or heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called rete mirabile in the carotid sinus. Both these theories of blood circulation then (beginning with Ibn al-Nafis's works published around 1242) proved wrong.
In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explains the difference between motor and sensory nerves, discusses the concept of muscle tone, and explains the difference between agonists and antagonists.
Galen is an expert surgeon, operating on human patients. Many of his procedures and techniques will not be used for centuries, like the procedures he does on the brain and eyes. To improve cataracts in patients, Galen performs surgery similar to modern surgery. Using a needle-shaped tool, Galen attempted to remove the cataract's eye lens. His surgical experiments included the binding of arteries in living animals. Although many 20th century historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens was at the right eye center, Galen really understood that the crystal lens lies in the anterior aspect of the human eye.
At first reluctantly, but then with increasing zeal, Galen promoted Hippocratic teachings, including venesection and bloodletting, which were later unknown in Rome. This was strongly criticized by the Erasistrateans, who predicted a terrible outcome, believing that it was not blood but pneuma that flowed in the veins. However, Galen, vigorously defended the venesection in his three books on the subject and in his public demonstrations and disputes.
Contribution to philosophy
Although the main focus of his work is on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also writes on logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, and Stoa. Galen had an interest in combining philosophical thinking with medical practice, as in his short work That the Best Doctor is also a Philosopher . He takes aspects of each group and combines them with their original thoughts. He regards medicine as the best interdisciplinary field by utilizing theories, observations, and experiments in relationships.
Some schools of thought existed in the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the two main ones being Empiricists and Rationalists (also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with Methodists being smaller groups. Empiricists emphasize the importance of physical exercise and experimentation, or "active learning" in the medical discipline. Directly opposed to Empiricists is the Rationalists, who appreciate the study of established doctrine to create new theories on behalf of medical progress. The Methodists form a bit of a middle ground, for they are not as experimental as the Empiricists, or theoretically like the Rationalists. The Methodists primarily use pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the course of a natural disease rather than making an attempt to find treatment. Education Galen has exposed it to the five main schools of thought (Platonic, Peripatetics, Stoic, Epicureans, Pyrrhones), with teachers from the Rationalist school and from the Empire sect.
Opposition to Stoik
Galen is renowned for his advancement in medicine and the circulatory system, but he is also concerned with philosophy. He developed his own tripartite spirit model following Plato's examples; some scholars regard it as a Platonist. Galen develops personality theories based on his understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believes that there is a physiological basis for mental disorders. Galen connects many of his theories with pneuma and he opposes the definition and use of Stoic pneuma.
The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to provide a credible answer to the localization of the functions of the soul, or mind. Through the use of drugs, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, brain. The Stoics simply recognize that the soul has one part, which is the rational soul and they claim that it will be found in the heart. Galen, following Plato's ideas, comes with two more parts for the soul.
Galen also rejects Stoic's propositional logic and instead uses hypothetical syllogism which is strongly influenced by Peripatetics and based on Aristotelian logic elements.
Localization function
One of Galen's major works, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato , seeks to show the unity of the two subjects and their views. Using their theory, combined with Aristotle, Galen developed a tripartite spirit composed of similar aspects. He uses the same term as Plato, referring to three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetizing. Each corresponds to a localized body area. The rational soul is in the brain, the spiritual soul is in the heart, and the lustful soul is in the heart. Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign certain parts of the soul to a location within the body because of his vast background in medicine. This idea is now referred to as the localization function. Galen's assignment is revolutionary for a period of time, which sets a precedent for localization theories in the future.
Galen believes every part of the tripartite soul controls certain functions in the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributes to the health of the body, strengthening "the natural functioning capacity of the organ or organ in question". The rational soul controls higher-level cognitive function within an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain. He also included "imagination, memory, memory, knowledge, thoughts, considerations, movements and voluntary sensations" as found in a rational soul. The function of "grow or live" lives in a vibrant spirit. A zealous soul also contains our passions, like anger. This fondness is considered stronger than ordinary emotions, and, as a consequence, is more dangerous. The third part of the soul, or the spirit of the appetite, controls the life force in our body, the most important is the blood. The spirit of appetite also regulates the pleasure of the body and is driven by feelings of pleasure. The third part of the soul is the animal side, or more naturally, related to the natural impulses of the body's instincts and survival. Galen proposes that when the soul is moved by too much pleasure, it reaches the state of "incontinence" and "irreverence", the inability to deliberately stop the fun, which is the negative consequence of too much pleasure.
To unify his theory of the soul and how it operates in the body, he adapts the pneuma theory, which he uses to explain how the soul is operated within the assigned organ, and how the organs, in turn, interact together. Galen then distinguishes vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system. Galen places the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma inside the brain. He performed many anatomical studies on animals, the most famous being an ox, to study the transition from a vital pneuma to a psychic. Though heavily criticized for comparing animal anatomy with human anatomy, Galen believes that his knowledge is quite abundant in both anatomy to base one on the other.
Body-mind problems
Galen believes there is no difference between mental and physical. This was a controversial argument at the time, and Galen fell with the Greeks by believing that mind and body were not separate senses. He believes this can be proven scientifically. This is where his resistance to the Stoics becomes most common. Galen proposes the organs in the body to be responsible for certain functions, rather than individual parts. According to Galen, Stoic's lack of scientific justification discredited their claims about the separation of mind and body, which is why he spoke very loudly to them.
Psychotherapy
One of Galen's other major works, On Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion, discusses how to approach and deal with psychological problems. This was Galen's early attempt at what came to be called psychotherapy. His book contains instructions on how to advise those with psychological problems to encourage them to express their deepest desires and secrets, and ultimately heal them from their mental shortcomings. Leading individuals, or therapists, should be men, preferably older, wiser, aged, and free of lust control. This passion, according to Galen, causes the psychological problems that people experience.
Works published
Galen may have produced more works than any other author in antiquity, rivaling the number of jobs spent from Augustine of Hippo. So great is Galen's output that living texts represent almost half of all the ancient literature of ancient Greece. It has been reported that Galen employed twenty scribes to write his words. Galen may have written 500 treatises, numbering about 10 million words. Although his surviving works amount to about 3 million words, this is considered to represent less than a third of the full text. In 191 AD, the fire at the Peace Shrine destroyed many of his works, especially his treatise on philosophy.
Since the work of Galen was not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, together with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, decreased in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the tradition of ancient Greek medicine continued to be studied and followed in the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All the extant Greek manuscripts from Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. In the Abbasid period (after AD 750) Arab Muslims became interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and have some Galen texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). Consequently, some of Galen's texts exist only in Arabic translations, while others only exist in Latin translations of Medieval Arabic. In some cases, scholars even try to translate from Latin or Arabic back to the original lost Greek. For some ancient sources, such as Herophilus, Galen's account of their work is all that survives.
Even in his own day, the forgery and the immoral editions of his work were problems, prompting him to write In his Own Books . Counterfeiting in Latin, Arabic or Greek continues until the Renaissance. Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years. Resources are often in journals or repositories that are not clear and difficult to access. Although written in Greek, the conventions of such works are referred to by Latin titles, and are often only abbreviations. There is not a single authoritative collection of his work available, and the controversy remains about the authenticity of a number of works associated with Galen. As a result, research on Galen's work is fraught with danger.
Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's extensive output. For example, Coxe (1846) lists Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatises embracing Physiology (28 vols), Hygiene (12), Etiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4) and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 words of pearl, and fake works. The most complete compendium of Galen's writings, even beyond modern projects such as the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, was compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob KÃÆ'¼hn from Leipzig between 1821 and 1833. This collection consists of 122 Galen treatises , translated from original to Latin (text presented in both languages). Over 20,000 pages in length, divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages. Many of Galen's works are included in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library of Greek literature beginning in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French BibliothÃÆ'¨que interuniversitaire de mÃÆ' Â © decine (BIUM).
Legacy
End of ancient times
In his time, Galen's reputation as a physician and philosopher was legendary, Emperor Marcus Aurelius described him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among physicians and unique among philosopher Preen 14: 660). Other contemporary writers in the Greek world confirm these include Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th century poet, George of Pisida, went so far as to call Christ the second and abandoned Galen. Galen continued to have an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-seventeenth century in the Byzantine and Arab world and Europe. Hippocrates and Galen formed an important landmark of 600 years of Greek medicine. A. J. Brock described them as representing the foundations and their respective peaks. A few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated, in his commentary on Hippocrates, that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.
Thus, Galen summarizes and synthesizes the work of his predecessors, and in Galen's words (Galenisme) Greek medicine is passed down to the next generation, so Galenisme becomes the means by which the Greek medicine is known to the world. Often, this is in the form of repetition and reinterpretation, as in Magnus's work of Nisibis in the fourth century on urine, which in turn is translated into Arabic. However, it is important that his contribution be not appreciated until long after his death. Galen's rhetoric and productivity are so strong as to convey the impression that there is little left to learn. The term Galenisme then takes on a positive and degrading significance as one that changed medicine in the late antiquity but so dominates the next thought to impede further progress.
After the fall of the Western Empire, the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West. In the eastern, predominantly Greek-speaking region of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators from subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, were doctors to the Julian emperor who composed Synopsis in the 4th century. , preserving and disseminating Galen's works, making Galenisme more accessible. Nutton referred to these authors as "medical refrigerators of ancient times". In the late antiquity, medical literature was increasingly directed toward theoretical at the expense of practice, with many authors arguing only Galenisme. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, like John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their talk on Galen De Sectis. So strong was Galenism that other writers like Hippocrates began to be seen through Galenic lenses, while their opponents became marginalized and other medical sects like Asclepiadism slowly disappeared. Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Eastern Christians came into contact with it while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and Western Mesopotamia, a region conquered by Byzantium in the 7th century by Arab Muslims. After AD 750, the Muslims had these Syrian Christians make Galen's first translation into Arabic. Since then, Galen and the Greek medical tradition have generally assimilated into the Middle East of modern and medieval Islamic Islam.
Influence on drugs in the Islamic world
Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. Galen's first major translator in Arabic is Syrian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c: 830-870) 129 the work of "Jalinos" into Arabic. Arabic sources, such as Rhazes (Muhammad ibn Zakar, Ya R. Zi AD 865-925), continue to be the source of the discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings. One of the Hunayn Arabic translations, The Book of ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad , which is still in the Medieval Medical College Library of Ibnu Sina & amp; Science, considered a masterpiece of Galen's literary works. Part of Galen's summary of Alexandria, this 10th-century manuscript consists of two parts covering details about the different types of fever (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body. More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single formulations and compounds from both herbal and animal origin. This book provides insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the era of Greece and Rome. In addition, the book provides a direct source to study more than 150 single and compounded drugs used during the Greco-Roman period.
As the title Doubt of Galen by Rhazes implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Ibn al-Nafis, Galen's works are not accepted without question, but as a challenging basis for investigation Furthermore. The strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism leads to new results and new observations, which are contrasted and combined with the works of Galen by writers such as Rhazes, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Abbas Haly), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulasis), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, experiments conducted by Römi and Ibn Zuhr contradict the Galenic theory of humorism, while the discovery of Ibn al-Nafis's pulmonary circulation contradicts Galenic theory of the heart.
The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern Unani medicine, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.
Reintroduction to Latin West
From the 11th century onwards, Latin translations of Islamic medical texts began to appear in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and soon incorporated into the curriculum at universities in Naples and Montpellier. From that moment on, Galenisme took on an unquestionable new authority, Galen was even referred to as "Medieval Medical Pope". Constantine the Africans were among those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. In addition to more translations of Arabic texts in this period, there are several translations of Galenician works directly from Greece, such as the Burgundio translation of Pisa on De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the university curriculum of medieval physicians, alongside Ibn Sina The Canon of Medicine , described in Galen's works. Unlike Roman infidels, Christian Europeans did not impose universal restrictions on surgery and autopsy of the human body and such checks were carried out regularly starting from at least the 13th century. However, Galen's influence was so great that when surgery found anomalies compared to Galen's anatomy, physicians often tried to incorporate this into the Galenic system. An example is Mondino de Liuzzi, which describes an improper blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle must contain air. Some refer to this change as evidence that human anatomy has changed since Galen's time.
The most important translator of Galen's work into Latin is NiccolÃÆ'² in Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working at Galen. NiccolÃÆ'² worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of Robert of Napoli. Among NiccolÃÆ'²'s translations is part of a medical treatise by Galen, whose original text is missing.
Renaissance
The Renaissance, and the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453), accompanied by the inclusion of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, permitted a direct comparison between Arabic commentaries and Galenian original Greek texts. This New Study and the Humanist movement, especially the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen in the Latin scientific canon De Naturalibus Facultatibus that appeared in London in 1523. The debate on medical science is now has two traditions, the more conservative Arabs and the liberal Greeks. The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as Paracelsus illustrated symbolically burning Avicenna and Galen's work in medical school in Basle. Nevertheless, Galen's superiority among the great millennium thinkers is exemplified by a 16th century mural in the Great Lavra of Mt Athos refectory. It depicts the pagan sage at the foot of the Jesse Tree, with Galen between Sibyl and Aristotle.
Galenisme's final defeat comes from a combination of Paracelsus negativism and the anatomical constructivism of the Italian Renaissance, such as Vesalius in the 16th century. In the 1530s, the anatomist and physician Flemish Andreas Vesalius took the project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. The most famous work of Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica , is strongly influenced by the writing and the Galenic form. Seeking to examine Galen's critical methods and views, Vesalius turned to the dissection of the human corpse as a verification tool. Galen's writings are shown by Vesalius to describe the details of the monkey but not to humans, and he shows Galen's limitations through books and direct demonstrations despite the fierce opposition of pro-Galatic Orthodox as Jacobus Sylvius. Since Galen claims that he uses the observation of monkeys (human dissection is forbidden) to give an explanation of what that body is like, Vesalius can describe himself using Galen's approach of direct observation to make exact detail notes of the human body, as he works at the time human surgery is permitted. Galen argues that the anatomy of monkeys is close enough to humans for doctors to study anatomy with monkey surgery and then make observations on similar structures in their patients' wounds, rather than trying to study the anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as will be done by students trained in models Empiricists. Vesalius's examination also denied Aristotle's medical theory and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of Vesalius' most famous instances of reversing Galenisme is the demonstration that the heart's interventricular septum is not permeable, as Galen taught ( Nat Fac III xv ). However, this was revealed two years earlier by Michael Servetus in his "very important, Christianismi restitutio" (1553) with only three copies of the book still in existence, but this has remained hidden for decades; the rest was burned shortly after publication due to Servetus' torture by religious authorities.
Michael Servetus, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was Vesalius and Galenic's best worker at the University of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach, who taught both. In Renaissance Galena, the edition of Opera Omnia by Galen is very important. It started in Venice in 1541-1542 by Guinta. There are fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Only one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentary on breathing and blood flow that corrects the work of renowned authors such as Vesalius, Caius or Janus Cornarius. "Michel De Villeneuve" had a contract with Jean Frellon for the job, and Servetus researcher Francisco Javier GonzÃÆ'¡lez EcheverrÃÆ'a presented the research that became the accepted communication in the International Society for Medical History, concluding that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author comments from this edition of Frellon, in Lyon.
Another convincing case in which an understanding of the body expanded beyond where Galen left him comes from this demonstration of the nature of human circulation and subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente and William Harvey. Some of Galenic's teachings, such as his emphasis on bloodshed as a cure for many diseases, nevertheless, remained in effect until entering the 19th century.
Contemporary scholarship
Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following a renewed interest in his work, derived from the German encyclopedia RealtorclopÃÆ'¤die der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft .
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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