Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

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In medical history, Islamic Medicine is a medical science developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and is written in Arabic, Islamic civilization.

Islamic medicine is preserved, systematized and developed medical knowledge of classical antiquity, including the great traditions of Hippocrates, Galen and Dioscorides. During the post-classical era, Islamic medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, and ancient Indian Ayurveda traditions. At the same time, knowledge of classical medicine was almost lost in the medieval treatment of Western Europe, only to be recovered by European physicians when they became familiar with Islamic medical writers during the Renaissance from the 12th century.

Medieval Islamic doctors largely retained their authority until the emergence of drugs as part of the natural sciences, beginning with the Age of Enlightenment, almost six hundred years after their textbooks were written. The aspect of their writing remains attractive to doctors even today.

Video Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

Ikhtisar

Medicine is a central part of medieval Islamic culture. In response to the circumstances of time and place, doctors and Islamic scholars develop a large and complex medical literature that explores, analyzes, and synthesizes the theory and practice of medicine. Islamic Medicine was originally built on tradition, especially the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Arabia and known in the time of Muhammad, ancient Hellenistic medicine such as Unani, ancient Indian medicine such as Ayurveda, and Ancient Iranian Medicine from the Gundishapur Academy. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Galen and Dioscorides also had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine. Ophthalmology has been described as the most successful branch of medicine studied at the time, with Ibn al-Haitham's remaining works of authority on the field until the beginning of modern times.

Maps Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

Origin and source

? ibb an-Nabaw? - Vegetable Drugs

Adoption by the new Islamic society to form the medical knowledge around, or the newly conquered "pagan" civilization must be justified as conforming to Islamic beliefs. Initially, the study and practice of medicine is understood as an act of piety, based on the principles of Imaan (belief) and Tawakkul (belief).

The Prophet not only instructed the sick to take medicine, but he himself invited the specialist for this purpose.

Muhammad's opinion on health issues, and habits related to living a healthy life, was collected from the beginning, and edited as a separate collection of titles with the title ? Ibb an-Nab? ("The Medicine of the Prophet"). In the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun, in his work Muqaddimah gave a brief overview of what he called "medical arts and crafts", separating medical science from religion:

You should know that the origin of all diseases goes back to nutrition, like the Prophet - God blesses him! - Says with regard to the entire medical tradition, as is commonly known to all doctors, even if this is opposed by the scholars. These are the words: "The abdomen is the House of Illness, and abstinence is the most important medicine.The cause of every disease is bad digestion."

The Sahih al-Bukhari, a collection of prophetic traditions, or hadith by Muhammad al-Bukhari refers to Mohammed's collection of medicines, by his younger contemporary Anas bin-Malik. Anas writes about two doctors who have treated him with cauterization and mentioned that the prophet wanted to avoid this treatment and had asked for alternative treatments. Then, there are reports from the caliph? Umm? N ibn? Aff? N fixes his teeth with a wire made of gold. He also mentioned that the habit of cleaning teeth with small wooden toothpicks dates back to pre-Islamic times.

"The medicine of the Prophet" is rarely mentioned by the classical authors of Islamic medicine, but has lived in materia medica for several centuries. In his book Book of as- aidana (Book Remedies) of 10./11. century, Al-Biruni refers to collected poetry and other works related to, and commented on, the materia medica of ancient Arabia.

The most famous doctor is Al-? Ari? ben-Kalada a? -? aqaf ?, who lived at the same time as the Prophet. He should have been in contact with the Gondishapur Academy, maybe he was even trained there. He was reported to have spoken to Khosrow I Anushirvan about the medical topic.

Doctors during the early years of Islam

Most likely, Arab doctors became familiar with the Greco-Roman and Hellenistic remedies through direct contact with doctors who were practicing in newly conquered areas rather than by reading original or translated works. The translations of the emerging Islamic capital city to Damascus may have facilitated this contact, as Syrian medicine is part of that ancient tradition. The names of two Christian doctors are known: Ibn A'l worked in the court of Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. The Caliph misused his knowledge to remove some of his enemies by poisoning. Likewise, Abuul Akam, who was in charge of the preparation of drugs, was employed by Muawiah. His son, grandson, and great-grandson also serve the Umayyads and Abbasids.

These sources testify to the fact that physicians from an emerging Islamic society are familiar with the classical medical traditions that existed at the time of the Umayyads. Medical knowledge is likely to come from Alexandria, and possibly transferred by Syrian scholars, or translators, find their way into the Islamic world. 7th-9thcentcent: _The_adoption_of_earlier_traditions "> 7th-9th century: Adoption of previous traditions

Very few sources provide information on how developing Islamic societies receive medical knowledge. A doctor named Abdalmalik ben Abgar al-Kin? N? of Kufa in Iraq should have worked at a medical school in Alexandria before he joined the court of Umar bin Abdul Aziz. Umar transferred medical school from Alexandria to Antioch. Also note that members of the Gondishapur Academy travel to Damascus. The Gondishapur Academy remained active throughout the period of the Abbasid Caliphate.

An important source of the second half of the 8th century was Jabir ibn Hayyans "Book of Poisons". He only quoted earlier works in Arabic translations, such as those available to him, including Hippocrates, Plato, Galen, Pythagoras, and Aristotle, and also mentioned the Persian names of some medicines and medical plants.

In 825, the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun founded House of Wisdom (Arabic: ???????? Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad, following the Gondishapur Academy. Led by the Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and with Byzance's support, all the available works of the antique world are translated, including Galen, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Archimedes.

It is now understood that early Islamic medicine was primarily informed directly from the Greek sources of the Alexandria Academy, translated into Arabic; the influence of the Persian medical tradition appears to be limited to materia medica, although the Persian physicians are also familiar with Greek sources.

Ancient Greek, Roman, and hellenistic medical literature

Ancient Greek and Roman

Various translations of several works and compilations of ancient medical texts are known from the 7th century. Hunayn ibn Ishaq, leader of the translation team at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad played a key role in the translation of all known classical medical literature corpuses. The Caliph of Al-Ma'mun had sent messengers to the Byzantine emperor, Theophilos, asking him to provide whatever classical texts he had. Thus, the great medical texts of Hippocrates and Galen were translated into Arabic, as well as the works of Pythagoras, Akron Agrigent, Democritus, Polybos, Diogenes of Apollonia, medical works associated with Plato, Aristotle, Mnesitheus of Athens, Xenocrates, Pedanius Dioscorides, Criton, Soranus of Ephesus, Archigenes, Antyllus, Rufus of Ephesus is translated from the original text, other works including the works of Erasistratos are known through their quotes in the works of Galens.

Last hellenistic text

The works Oribasius, physician to the Roman emperor Julian, from the 4th century AD, is known, and is often quoted in detail by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes). The works Philagrius of Epirus, who also lived in the 4th century AD, known today only from quotations by Arab writers. Philosopher and physician John the Grammarian, who lived in the 6th century AD regarded as a commentator on Summaria Alexandrinorum . This is a compilation of 16 books by Galen, but marred by superstitious ideas. Doctors Gessios of Petra and Palladios equally known by Arab doctors as the author of Summaria . Rhazes quotes Roman physician Alexander of Tralles (6th century) to support his criticism of Galen. The works AÃÆ' Â «tiius of Amida only be known in the future, because they are not quoted by Rhazes, or Ibn al-Nadim, but cited first by Al-Biruni in his book" Kitab as-Saidana ", and translated by Ibn al - Hammar in the 10th century.

One of the first books translated from Greek to Syriac, and then to Arabic during the fourth Umayyad period, Marwan I by Jewish scholar, Mà ¢ â,¬â "¢ saà ¢? Curai al-Basr? is a medical compilation Kunn ?? , by Ahron, who lived during the 6th century. Then, Hunayn ibn Ishaq has given a better translation.

Doctor Paul of Aegina lived in Alexandria during the Arab expansion. His works seem to have been used as an important reference by early Islamic doctors, and are often quoted from Rhazes to Avicenna. Paul of Aegina provides a direct link between Hellenistic medical science and early Islamic medicine.

Arabic translation of Hippocrates

The early Islamic doctors were already familiar with the life of Hippocrates, and were aware of the fact that his biography was partly legendary. Also they know that some living people are called Hippocrates, and their works are arranged under one name: Ibn an-Nad? M has conveyed a brief treatise by Tabit ben-Qurra on al-Buqratun ("the (various people called) Hippocrates"). The translation of some of Hippocrates' works must have existed before Hunayn ibn Ishaq began his translation, because the historian Al-Ya? Q? B? compiled a list of works he had known in 872. Fortunately, the list also provided a summary of the content, quotations, or even the entire text of a single work. The philosopher Al-Kindi wrote a book entitled at-Tibb al-Buqrati (The Medicine of Hippocrates), and his contemporary Hunayn ibn Ish? Q then translated Galens's comment about Hippocrates. Rhazes was the first Arab-writing doctor to fully use Hippocrates' writings to prepare his own medical system. Al-Tabari states that the compilation of his hippocratic teachings ( al-Muà ¢ â,¬â "¢ laà ¢ â,¬â" ¢ t al-buqrà ¢ â,¬â "¢ ) is a more summary right. The work of Hippocrates is quoted and commented on throughout the entire period of medieval Islamic medicine.

Arabic translation Galen

Galen is one of the most famous intellectuals and doctors of classical times. Today, the original texts of some of his works, and his biographical details, disappeared, and are known only to us because they are translated into Arabic. Jabir ibn Hayyan often quotes Galen's books, which are available in early Arabic translations. In 872 CE, Ya'qubi refers to some of Galens' works. The title of the books he mentioned is different from the title chosen by Hunayn ibn Ish? Q for its own translation, so suggesting a previous translation must exist. Hunayn often mentions in his commentary on the works he has translated that he considered the previous translations as insufficient, and has given a completely new translation. Initial translation may have been available before the 8th century; most likely they were translated from Syria or Persia.

In medieval Islamic medicine, Hunayn ibn Ish? The Q and Tabits of his younger contemporary youth play an important role as Galen's translator and commentator. They also try to compile and summarize the consistent medical system of these works, and add this to medical science in their period. However, it had begun with Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century, and even more clearly in Rhazes's treatise on vision, criticism of Galen's ideas took place. in the 10th century, the physician 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi wrote:

With regard to the great and extraordinary Galen, he has written many works, each consisting only of the parts of science. There is a long passage, and redundancy of thought and evidence, throughout his works. [...] None of them I can think of [...] as comprehensive.

Syrian and Persian medical literature

Syrian text

During the 10th century, Ibn Wahshiyya composed writings by Nabataean, including medical information. Syrian scholar Sergius of Reshaina translated works by Hippocrates and Galen, among them 6-8 of pharmacological books, and fragments of two other books have been preserved. Hunayn ibn Ish? Q has translated these works into Arabic. Another work, still in existence today, by an unknown Syrian author, is likely to have influenced Arabic doctors Al-Tabari and Y? Hann? ibn M? sawaiyh.

The earliest known translation of Syriac is Kunn ?? from Ahron scholar (who himself translated it from Greek), translated into Arabic by M? Sar? Awai al-Basr? in the 7th century. Syrian doctors also played an important role at the Gondishapur Academy; their names are preserved because they work in the Abbasid caliph's court.

Persian texts

Once again Gondishapur Academy played an important role, guiding the transmission of Persian medical knowledge to Arab doctors. Founded, according to Gregory Bar-Hebraeus, by the ruler of Sassanid Shapur I during the 3rd century, the academy links the ancient Greek and Indian medical traditions. Arab doctors trained at Gondishapur may have been in contact with early Islamic medicine. Minutes Abd? L al-adwiya by the Christian doctor M? Sar? Awai (not to be confused with translator M. al-Basr?) It is important, as the opening sentence of work is:

This is a medicine taught by Greek, Indian and Persian doctors.

In his Firdaus al-Hikma (Heavenly Wisdom), Al-Tabari uses only a few Persian medical terms, especially when mentioning certain diseases, but a large number of drugs and medicinal plants are mentioned using their Persian name, which also enters the medical language of Islamic medicine. As well as al-Tabari, Rhazes rarely uses the Persian term, and only refers to two Persian works: Kunn ?? f? risi and al-fil? ha al-f? risiya .

Indian medical literature

Indian scientific works, e.g. in Astronomy already translated by Ya? q? b ibn ?? riq and Mu? ammad ibn hbr? h? m al-faz? r? during the time of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur. Under Harun al-Rashid, most recently, the first translation was made on Indian works on drugs and pharmacology. In a chapter on Indian medicine, Ibn al-Nadim mentions the names of three translators: Mankah, Ibn Dahn, and? Abdallah ibn? Al? Y? Hann? ibn M? sawaiyh cites Indian textbooks in his treatise on ophthalmology.

at-Tabar? devotes the last 36 chapters of his book Firdaus al-Hikmah to describe Indian medicine, cites Sushruta, Charaka, and Ashtanga Hridaya (Sanskrit: ????????? ?, a ???? ga h? power ; "The eight-part heart"), one of the most important books on Ayurveda, translated between 773 and 808 by Ibn-Dhan. Rhazes quotes in al-Hawi and in Kitab al-Mansuri both Sushruta and Charaka in addition to other unnamed authors whose works he refers to as' '' min book al -Bakuk ", ,, an Indian book".

Meyerhof suggests that Indian medicines, like Persian drugs, primarily affect the medics of Arab materia, as they often refer to the names of Indian medicinal herbs and medicines, unknown to the Greek medical tradition. While Syrian doctors transmit medical knowledge from the ancient Greeks, it is likely that the Persian physician, possibly from the Gondishapur Academy, was the first intermediary between Indian and Arabic medicine

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Doctor and scientist

The authority of the great physicians and scientists of the golden age of Islam has influenced the art and science of medicine for centuries. Their concepts and ideas about medical ethics are still being discussed today, especially in parts of our Islamic world. Their ideas about physician behavior, and doctor-patient relationships are discussed as potential role models for current physicians.

The art of healing has died, Galen revives; it was scattered and irregular, Razi rearranged and reconciled it; it is not complete, Ibn Sinna perfected it.

Ali ibn Mousa al-Ridha

Ali ibn Mousa al-Rida (765-818) was the eighth Shiite Imam. His treatise "Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah" ("The Golden Treatise") deals with medical medicine and good health care, and is dedicated to the Ma'mun caliph. It was considered in his time as an important work of literature in medicine, and the most precious medical treatise from the perspective of Muslim religious traditions. It is honored with the title of "gold treatise" as Ma'mun has ordered it to be written in golden ink. In his work, Al-Ridha is influenced by the concept of humoral treatment

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari

The first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic was by Persian scientist Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari Firdous al-Hikmah ( "Heaven of Wisdom" ), written in seven sections, c. 860. Al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development, emphasizes the strong connection between psychology and medicine, and the need for psychotherapy and counseling in the treatment of patient therapy. His encyclopedia also discussed the effects of Sushruta and Chanakya on treatment, including psychotherapy. Muhammad bin Sa'id al-Tamimi

Muhammad bin Sa'id al-Tamimi

Al-Tamimi, the doctor (d 990) became famous for his expertise in making drugs, especially theriacs, the antidote. His works, many of which no longer survive, were quoted by doctors later. Taking what was known at the time by the classical Greek writers, Al-Tamimi expanded their knowledge of the properties of plants and minerals, into avant garde in his field.

Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi

'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994 AD), also known as Haly Abbas, is well known for Kitab al-Maliki translated as Complete Book of Medical Art and later, > The Royal Book . This book was translated by Constantine and used as an operating textbook in schools throughout Europe. One of Haly Abbas's greatest contributions to medical science is his description of the capillary circulation found in the Kingdom Book. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Latin: Rhazes) is one of the most versatile scientists of the Golden Age of Islam. A Persian-born physician, chemist and philosopher, he is best known for his medical work, but he also writes botany and zoology, as well as books on physics and mathematics. His work is highly respected by 10th/11th century physicians and scholars al-Biruni and al-Nadim, who record biographical information about al-Razi, and compile lists, and comment on, his writings. Much of his books were translated into Latin, and he remained one of the undisputed authorities in European medicine until the 17th century.

In medical theory, al-Razi relies primarily on Galen, but special attention to individual cases, emphasizes that each patient should be treated individually, and his emphasis on hygiene and diet reflects the ideas and concepts of empirical hippocratic schools. Rhazes considers the climatic and seasonal influences on health and wellbeing, he is careful that there is always clean air and the appropriate temperature in the patient's room, and recognizes the value of prevention as well as the need for caution. diagnosis and prognosis.

At the beginning of an illness, choose a drug that does not weaken the [patient's] strength. [...] Whenever enough nutritional changes, do not use drugs, and whenever single drugs are sufficient, do not use a combination drug.

Kitab-al Hawi fi al-tibb (Liber continens)

The kitab-al Hawi fi al-tibb ( al-Hawi ?????? , Latin: Comprehensive Book of medicine , Continens Liber , The Virtuous Life ) is one of the greatest works of Al-Razis, the collection of medical records he made throughout his life in the form of extracts from the reading and his observations from his own medical experience. In the published form, it consists of 23 volumes. Al-Razi quotes previous Greek, Syrian, Indian and Arabic works, and also covers medical cases from his own experience. Each volume is associated with certain parts or bodily diseases. 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi reviewed al-Hawi in his own book Kamil as-sina'a :

[In al-Hawi] he refers to everything that is important for a doctor to maintain health, and treat illness through drugs and diet. He illustrates the signs of illness and does not eliminate anything necessary for anyone who wants to learn the art of healing. However, he does not talk about physical topics, about the science of elements, temperament and humor, nor does it describe the organ structure or [method] of operation. His book is without structure and logical consequences, and does not show any scientific method. [...] In his portrayal of every disease, cause, symptom, and treatment, he describes everything that all ancient and modern physicians knew from Hippocrates and Galen to Hunayn ibn Ishaq and all who lived between them, even. of all they ever wrote, carefully noted all of this in his book, so that ultimately all medical works are contained in his own book.

Al-Hawi remains an authoritative medical textbook in most universities in Europe, considered to be the seventeenth century as the most comprehensive work ever written by a medical scientist. It was first translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a Sicilian-Jewish doctor employed by Charles of Anjou.

Liber Nonus .

'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi commented on al-Mansuri in his book "Kamil as-sina":

In his book entitled "Kitab al-Mansuri", al-Razi summarizes everything pertaining to medical art, and never ignores any matter he mentions. However, everything is shortened, in keeping with the purpose he has set himself.

The book was first translated into Latin in 1175 by Gerard of Cremona. Under various titles ("Liber (medicinalis) ad Almansorem"; "Almansorius"; "Liber ad Almansorem"; "Liber Nonus") were printed in Venice in 1490, 1493, and 1497. Among the many European commentators on the non-Liberus, Andreas Vesalius paraphrased al-Razis's work in his book "Paraphrase in the nonum librum Rhazae", first published in Louvain, 1537.

Kitab al-Jadari wa- hasba (De variolis et morbillis)

Until the discovery of Tabit ibn Qurras earlier work, Al-Razis's treatise on smallpox and measles is considered the earliest monograph on this infectious disease. A careful description of the early symptoms and the clinical course of the two diseases, as well as the care that he suggests based on the observation of symptoms, is considered a masterpiece of Islamic medicine.

Other works

Other works include a dissertation on the Coryza cause that occurs in the spring when the roses emit their scent, the channel in which al-Razi discusses why it is a coryza contract or a common cold with the smell of roses during the spring, and Bur'al Sa'a ( Instant medicine ) where he named a drug that instantly cures certain diseases.

Abu-Ali al-Husayn bin Abdullah ibn-Sina (Avicenna)

Ibn Sina, better known in the west as Avicenna, was a polymath and Persian physician of the tenth and eleventh centuries. He is known for his scientific work, especially his writings on drugs. He has been described as "The Father of Early Modern Medicine". Ibn Sina is credited with many diverse medical observations and discoveries, such as recognizing the potential for airborne disease transmission, providing insights into many psychiatric conditions, recommending the use of forceps in complicated delivery by fetal distress, distinguishing the center from peripheral facial paralysis and describing guinea. helminth infections and trigeminal neuralgia. He is credited for writing two books in particular: the most famous, al-Canon fi al Tibb ( The Canon of Medicine ), and also The Book of Healing His other works include subjects including angelology, cardiovascular medicine, and the treatment of kidney disease.

The drug Avicenna became a representative of Islamic medicine mainly through the influence of his famous work of Canon al-Canon fi al Tibb ( Canon of Medicine ). The book was originally used as a textbook for instructors and medical students at the Avicenna medical school. The book is divided into 5 volumes: The first volume is a summary of medical principles, the second is a reference to individual drugs, the third contains organ-specific diseases, the fourth discusses systemic diseases as well as parts of preventive health measures, and which the fifth contains a description of compound medicines. The Canon was very influential in medical school and later medical writer.

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Medical contributions

Anatomy and human physiology

It is claimed that important advances in human anatomical and physiological knowledge are made by Ibn al-Nafis, but whether this is found through human dissection is doubtful because "al-Nafis informs us that he avoids the practice of dissection because of shari'a and 'compassion' for the human body".

The movement of blood through the human body is thought to be known because of the work of the Greek doctors. However, there are questions about how blood flows from the right ventricle of the heart to the left ventricle, before blood is pumped throughout the body. According to Galen in the 2nd century, blood reaches the left ventricle through the invisible part of the septum. In some ways, Ibn al-Nafis, a 13th-century Syrian doctor, found earlier statements about the flow of blood from the right to left ventricle to false. Ibn al-Nafis found that the ventricular septum was impenetrable, had no invisible type of part, which indicated that Galen's assumption was wrong. Ibn al-Nafis found that the blood in the right ventricle of the heart is carried to the left by the lungs. This discovery is one of the first descriptions of pulmonary circulation, although his writings on the subject were only rediscovered in the 20th century, and it was the independent discovery of later William Harvey that brought him to public attention.

According to the Ancient Greeks, sight is considered as a visual spirit derived from the eye that allows objects to be seen. The 11th century Iraqi scientist, Ibn al-Haytham, also known as Al-hazen in Latin, developed a very new concept of human vision. Ibn al-Haytham takes a direct approach to vision by explaining that the eye is an optical instrument. The description on the anatomy of the eye leads him to form the basis for his theory of image formation, which is explained by the refraction of light rays passing between two media at different densities. Ibn al-Haytham developed this new theory about the vision of an experimental investigation. In the 12th century, his book Book of Optics was translated into Latin and continued to be studied both in the Islamic world and in Europe until the 17th century.

Ahmad ibn Abi al-Ash'ath, a famous doctor from Mosul, Iraq, describes the physiology of the stomach in the lion living in his book al-Quadi wa al-muqtadi. He writes:

When the food goes into the stomach, especially when it's abundant, the stomach widens and the layers stretched... the audience thinks the stomach is a bit small, so I start pouring the jug after the jug in his throat... the inner layer of the belly becomes a smooth as peritoneal external layer. I then cut my stomach and let the water out. Her belly shrank and I could see the pylor...

Ahmad ibn Abi al-Ash'ath observed the physiology of the stomach in a live lion in 959. This description precedes William Beaumont nearly 900 years, making Ahmad ibn al-Ash'ath the first person to start an experimental event in the gastric physiology.

According to Galen, in his work entitled De ossibus ad tirones , the lower jaw is composed of two parts, as evidenced by the fact that it is destroyed in the middle when it is cooked. Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, during a visit to Egypt, found many skeletons of those who died of starvation near Cairo. He examined the skeleton and determined that the mandible consists of one part, not two as Galen taught. He writes in his work Al-Ifada w-al-Itibar fi al_Umar al Mushahadah w-al-Hawadith al-Muayanah bi Ard Misr , or "The Book of Instruction and Advice on the Seen and the Events Recorded in the Land of Egypt ":

All the anatomists agree that the mandibular bone consists of two parts that join together in the chin. [...] The examination of this part of the body convinces me that the mandibular bone is one, without connection or stitches. I have repeated that observation over and over again, in over two hundred heads [...] I have been assisted by different people, who have repeated the same test, both in my absence and under my eyes.

Unfortunately, the discovery of Al-Baghdadi did not get much attention from his contemporaries, as the information is somewhat hidden in detailed records of geography, botany, Egyptian monuments, and hunger and its consequences. He never published his anatomical observations in a separate book, as he had planned.

Drugs

The medical contributions made by medieval Islam include the use of plants as a type of medicine or medicine. Medieval Islamic physicians use natural ingredients as a source of medicine - including Papaver somniferum Linnaeus, poppy, and Cannabis sativa Linnaeus, hemp. In pre-Islamic Arabia, both poppy and hemp are unknown. Rami was introduced to Islamic nations in the ninth century from India through Persia and Greek culture and medical literature. The Greek, Dioscorides, which according to the Arabs was the greatest botanist in ancient times, recommended flax seeds to "quell geniture" and juice for earache. Beginning in 800 and lasting for more than two centuries, the use of opium is limited to the therapeutic world. However, doses often exceed medical needs and are used repeatedly despite what was originally recommended. Poppy prescribed by Yuhanna b. Masawayh to relieve pain from gallbladder attacks, for fever, indigestion, eye, head and toothache, pleurisy, and to induce sleep. Although poppy has a drug benefit, Ali al-Tabari explains that the poppy leaf extract is lethal, and that the extract and opium should be considered toxic.

Surgery

The development and growth of hospitals in ancient Islamic societies extended medical practice to what is now known as surgery. Surgical procedures are known to physicians during the medieval period because of previous texts that included procedure descriptions. The translation of pre-Islamic medical publications is a fundamental building block for doctors and surgeons to extend practice. Surgery is rarely performed by doctors and other medical affiliates due to very low success rates, although previous records provide favorable results for specific operations. There are different types of procedures performed in ancient Islam, especially in the field of ophthalmology.

Technique

Bloodletting and cauterization is a technique widely used in ancient Islamic society by doctors, as a therapy to treat patients. Both of these techniques are generally done because of the various diseases they treat. Cauterization, a procedure used to burn the skin or wounded flesh, is done to prevent infection and stop many bleeding. To perform this procedure, the doctor heats the metal rod and uses it to burn the flesh or wound skin. This will cause the blood from the wound to clot and eventually heal the wound.

Bloodletting, surgical removal of blood, is used to cure a patient of "humor" that is considered to damage a person's health. A phlebotomist performs bloodshed in a patient who dries blood directly from a vein. Cupping "wet", a form of bloodshed, is done by making a small incision in the skin and drawing blood by using a heated cupping cup. Heat and suction from the glass causes the blood to rise to the surface of the skin to dry. "Dry cupping", placement of cupping cup (no incision) in certain areas of the patient's body to relieve pain, itching, and other common diseases, is also used. Although this procedure seems relatively easy to do by phlebotomists, there are instances where they have to pay compensation for causing injury or death to the patient due to carelessness when making an incision. Both bruises and phlebotomy are considered helpful when a patient is sickly.

Treatment

Surgery is important in treating patients with eye complications, such as trachoma and cataracts. A common complication of trachoma patients is tissue vascularization that attacks the cornea of ​​the eye, thought to be the cause of the disease, by ancient Islamic doctors. The technique used to repair these complications is done by surgery and is known today as a peritomy. This procedure is performed by "using instruments to keep the eyes open during surgery, a number of very small hooks to lift, and a very thin scalpel for removal." A similar technique in treating a trachoma complication, called pterygium, is used to remove bulbar-shaped conjunctival parts of the bulbar to the cornea. This is done by lifting the growth with a small hook and then cut with a small lancet. Both of these surgical techniques are very painful for the patient and are complicated for the doctor or his assistant to perform.

In medieval Islamic literature, cataracts are thought to be caused by membranes or opaque liquids located between the lens and the pupil. The method for treating cataracts in medieval Islam (known in English as couching) is known through the translation of previous publications on this technique. A small incision is made in sclera with a lancet and the probe is then inserted and used to suppress the lens, pushing it to one side of the eye. After the procedure is complete, the eye is then washed with salt water and then wrapped with cotton soaked with rose oil and egg whites. After surgery, there is concern that cataracts, after being pushed to one side, will reappear, which is why the patient is asked to lie on his back for several days after surgery.

Anesthesia and antisepsis

Both in modern society and medieval Islamic society, anesthesia and antisepsis are important aspects of surgery. Prior to the development of anesthesia and antisepsis, surgery is limited to fractures, dislocations, traumatic injuries resulting in amputations, and urinary or other common infections. Ancient Islamic doctors try to prevent infection when performing procedures for sick patients, for example by washing patients before the procedure; Similarly, following the procedure, the area is often cleaned with "wine, won mixed with rose oil, rose oil, brine, or vinegar", which has antiseptic properties. Various herbs and resins including incense, nuts, cassia, and laurel family members are also used to prevent infection, although it is impossible to know exactly how effective this treatment is in preventing sepsis. The use of pain killer opium has been known since ancient times; Other medicines including "medicinal plants, hemlocks, black black nights, lettuce seeds" are also used by Islamic doctors to treat pain. Some of these drugs, especially opium, are known to cause drowsiness, and some modern scholars argue that these drugs are used to cause a person to lose consciousness before surgery, as do modern anesthetics. However, there is no clear reference to such use before the 16th century.

Islamic scholars introduced mercuric chloride to sterilize the wound.

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Medical ethics

Doctors like al-Razi wrote about the importance of morality in medicine, and may have been presented, along with Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis, the first ethical concepts in Islamic medicine. He feels that it is important not only for doctors to become experts in their fields, but also to be role models. His ideas on medical ethics are divided into three concepts: the doctor's responsibility for the patient and for himself, as well as the patient's responsibility for the doctor.

The earliest Arabic work on medical ethics is Ishaq ibn 'Ali al-Ruhawi Adab al-Tabib (Arabic: ??? ?? ?? Adab a? -? ab? b , "Morals of the physician" or "Practical Medical Deontology") and is based on the works of Hippocrates and Galen. Al-Ruhawi considers physicians as "body and bodyguards," and writes twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics.

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Hospital

Many hospitals were developed during the early Islamic era. They are called Bimaristan, or Dar al-Shifa, Persian and Arabic words meaning "house [or place] of sick" and "preservation house," respectively. The idea of ​​a hospital for the care of the sick was taken from the early caliph. Bimaristan was seen as early as Muhammad's time, and the Prophet's mosque in Medina held the first Muslim hospital service in its courtyard. During Ghazwah Khandaq (Battle of the Trough), Muhammad found a wounded soldier and he ordered a tent to be assembled to provide medical care. Over time, the Caliph and the ruler expanded the journey of bimaristans to include doctors and pharmacists.

Umayyah Khalifah Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik is often considered meritorious to build the first bimaristan in Damascus in 707 AD. Bimaristan has paid medical staff and well-equipped clinics. It treats the blind, lepers and other disabled people, and also separates patients with leprosy from the sick. Some people consider this bimaristan to be nothing more than just lepersoria because it only separates the patient with leprosy. The first true Islamic hospital was built during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. The Caliph invited the son of the chief physician, Jabril bin Bukhtishu to clenched the new Baghdad bimaristan. It quickly achieved fame and led to the development of other hospitals in Baghdad.

Features of bimaristans

As hospitals expand during Islamic civilization, special characteristics are achieved. Bimaristans are secular. They serve everyone regardless of their race, religion, nationality, or gender. The Waqf document states no one is denied. The ultimate goal of all doctors and hospital staff is to work together to help the welfare of their patients. There is no time limit for a patient to spend time as an inpatient; The Waqf document states hospitals are asked to keep all patients until they are fully recovered. Men and women are treated in separate but equally equipped wards. Separate environments are subdivided into mental illness, infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases, surgery, drugs, and eye diseases. Patients were attended by the same nurses and sex staff. Each hospital contains lecture halls, kitchens, pharmacies, libraries, mosques and sometimes a chapel for Christian patients. Recreational materials and musicians are often used to entertain and entertain patients.

The hospital is not just a place to treat patients: the hospital also serves as a medical school to educate and train students. Preparation of basic science is learned through private tutors, independent study and lectures. Islamic hospitals are the first to keep patients' written records and medical care. Students are responsible for keeping this patient's record, which is then edited by the doctor and referred to in future care.

During this era, licensed physicians became mandatory in the Abbasid Caliphate. In 931 AD, Khalifah Al-Muqtadir learned about the death of one of his subjects as a result of a physician's fault. He immediately ordered the muhtasib Sinan ibn Thabit to check and prevent doctors from practicing until they pass the exam. From now on, licensing exams are required and only qualified doctors are allowed to practice medicine.

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Pharmacy

The birth of a pharmacy as an independent and well-defined profession was established in the early ninth century by Muslim scholars. Al-Biruni states that "pharmacy becomes independent of medicine because language and its syntax are separate from the composition, the prosodic knowledge of poetry, and the logic of philosophy, therefore [pharmacy] is aid [for medicine] rather than helpers". Sabur (d 869) wrote the first text in a pharmacy.

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Women and drugs

During the medieval period, the Hippocratic treaties were widely used by medieval doctors, because of their practical covenantal forms and their accessibility to medieval practice physicians. The Hippocratic Treaty of Gynecology and Obstetrics is usually referred by Muslim doctors when discussing female illness. Hippocratic authors link health and organs and the general function and reproduction of women who are believed to have no partners in the male body.

Confidence

The Hippocratics blames the womb for many women's health problems, such as schizophrenia. They describe the uterus as an independent being in a woman's body; and, when the uterus is not fixed in place by pregnancy, the uterus desperately needs moisture, is believed to move into the body's moist organs like the liver, heart, and brain. The movement of the uterus is assumed to cause many health conditions, especially menstruation is also considered important to maintain the general health of women.

Many beliefs about women's bodies and their health in the Islamic context can be found in religious literature known as "prophet medicine." These texts suggest that men stay away from women during their menstrual period, "because this blood is corrupt blood," and can actually harm those who come into contact with it. Many suggestions are given in relation to the right diet to promote women's health and especially fertility. For example: quince makes women's hearts softer and better; incense will produce the woman who gave birth to a man; Consumption of water melons during pregnancy will increase the likelihood of children having good character and face; dates should be eaten before labor to encourage childbirth and thereafter to assist in the recovery of women; parsley and fruit from palm trees stimulate sexual intercourse; asparagus eases labor pain; and eating animal udders increase lactation in women. In addition to being seen as a significant religious activity, sexual activity is considered moderately healthy for both men and women. However, the pain and medical risks associated with birth are so respected that women who die during childbirth can be viewed as martyrs. The use of prayer to God, and prayers are also part of the religious beliefs surrounding the health of women, most important is the meeting of Muhammad with a wrinkled slave girl whom he sees as proof of his possession by Evil Eye. He recommends that girls and others possessed by Eye use a specific prayer to God to free themselves from the debilitating effects on their spiritual and physical health.

Role

It has been written that male guardians such as fathers and husbands disagree with their wives or daughters being examined by male practitioners unless absolutely necessary in life or death. Guardians will soon treat their own women or they should be seen by female practitioners for the sake of privacy. Women also feel the same way; as well as pregnancy and accompanying processes such as childbirth and breastfeeding, which rely solely on advice given by other women. The role of women as practitioners appears in a number of works regardless of male dominance in the medical field. Two female doctors from Ibn Zuhr's family served the ruler of Almohad Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 12th century. Later in the 15th century, the female surgeon illustrated for the first time in? Erafeddin Sabuncuo? Lu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye ( Operation Empire ). The treatment given to women by men is justified by some people with prophetic drugs (al-tibba alnabawi), otherwise known as "the medicine of the prophet" (tibb al-nabi), which argues that men can treat women, and men, even if this means they should expose the patient's genitals in the required circumstances.

Female doctors, midwives, and wet nurses have all been mentioned in the literature of the time period.

The role of Christians

A hospital and medical training center is in Gundeshapur. The city of Gundeshapur was founded in 271 by the king of Sassanid Shapur I. It was one of the great cities in the Khuzestan province of the Persian kingdom in what is now Iran. Most of the population are Syrians, most of whom are Christians. Under Khosrau I, protection was given to the Christian Nestorian Christian philosopher including the clergy of the Persian School of Edessa (Urfa) (also called the Athens Academy), a Christian theological and medical university. These scholars walked to Gundeshapur in 529 after the closing of the academy by Emperor Justinian. They were involved in medical science and started the first translation project of medical texts. The arrival of medical practitioners from Edessa marks the beginning of the hospital and medical center in Gundeshapur. These include medical schools and hospitals (bimaristan), pharmacology laboratories, translation houses, libraries and observatories. Indian doctors also contribute to schools in Gundeshapur, especially medical researchers Mankah. Then after the Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and the Indian doctor Sustura were translated into Arabic in Baghdad. Daud al-Antaki is one of the last generations of influential Arabic Christian writers.

Legacy

Medieval Islamic acceptance of new ideas and legacies helped him make major advances in medicine during this time, adding to previous medical ideas and techniques, expanding the development of health sciences and related institutions, and advancing medical knowledge in areas such as surgery and understanding of the body human, although many Western scholars have not fully acknowledged its influence (apart from Roman and Greek influence) on the development of drugs.

Through the establishment and development of hospitals, the ancient Islamic physicians were able to provide more intrinsic surgery to cure patients, such as in the field of ophthalmology. This allows medical practice to be expanded and developed for future reference.

The contributions of two major Muslim philosophers and doctors, Al-Razi and Ibn Sina, have had a lasting impact on Muslim medicine. Through the compilation of their knowledge into medical books, each has a major influence on the education and filtering of medical knowledge in Islamic culture.

Source of the article : Wikipedia