Physiology ( ; from Ancient Greece ????? (physis) , meaning 'nature, origin', and - ???? ? (- logia) , meaning 'study of') is a scientific study of the normal mechanisms, and their interactions, that work in living systems. A sub-discipline of biology, the focus is how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules perform chemical or physical functions that exist in living systems. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among other things, animal physiology (including humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (microbial metabolism), bacterial physiology, and viral physiology.
The center of understanding of physiological functions is inherent in nature with other disciplines such as chemistry and physics, coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and ongoing communication between cells.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the medical world, physiological states are those that occur from normal, rather than pathological, bodily functions that center on abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.
Video Physiology
The foundation of physiology
Man
Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning, through scientific investigation into the nature of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells they make. The main level of the focus of physiology is on the level of organs and systems within the system. The endocrine and nervous systems play a major role in signal reception and transmission. which integrates function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect related to such interactions in plants and animals. The biological basis of physiological studies, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the human body system, as well as the accompanying forms. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electricity and chemistry.
Changes in physiology can have an impact on the mental function of an individual. Examples are the effects of certain drugs or levels of toxic substances. Behavioral changes as a result of these substances are often used to assess an individual's health.
Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology is provided by animal experiments. Because the frequent relationships between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and studied together as part of the medical curriculum.
Animal
Plants
Plant physiology is a botanical subdiscipline related to plant function. The closely related fields include plant morphology, plant ecology, phytochemicals, cell biology, genetics, biophysics, and molecular biology. The basic processes of plant physiology include photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, tropism, nastic movements, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, seed germination, dormancy, and stomata and transpiration functions. The absorption of water by the roots, the production of food in leaves, and the growth of shoots to light is an example of plant physiology.
Cell
Although there are differences between animals, plants, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into cell division processes, cell signals, cell growth, and cell metabolism.
Microorganisms
Microorganisms can be found almost everywhere on Earth. Types of microorganisms include archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes, protists, fungi, and micro-plants. Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment food, process waste, produce fuels, enzymes and other bioactive compounds. They are important tools in biology as model organisms and have been used in biological and bioterrorism wars. They are an important component of fertile soil. In microorganisms the human body forms human microbiota including important intestinal flora. They are pathogens that are responsible for many infectious diseases and thus are the targets of hygiene measures. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria can also freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even among very different species.
Virus
Maps Physiology
History
Classic Era
The study of human physiology as a medical field comes from classical Greece, in the days of Hippocrates (late 5th century BC). Beyond Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as being present at around the same time in China, India and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the humor theory, which consists of four basic substances: land, water, air, and fire. Every substance is known to have the appropriate humor: black bile, mucus, blood and yellow bile. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connection with four humor, which was later developed by Claudius Galenus. Aristotle's critical thinking and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the commencement of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took the humoral theory of disease, which also comprised four major qualities in life: heat, cold, wet and dry. Claudius Galenus (Â ± 130-200 AD), known as the Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to investigate bodily functions. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argues that humoral imbalances can be found in certain organs, including the whole body. The modification in this theory provides more doctors to make a more precise diagnosis. Galen also plays the notion of Hippocrates that emotions are also tied to humor, and adds the notion of temperament: optimism is in accord with blood; phlegmatic associated with phlegm; Yellow bile connected with kolerik; and black bile associated with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and the nerves, responsible for the mind and sensation; heart and arteries, giving life; and the liver and veins, which can be associated with nutrition and growth. Galen is also the founder of experimental physiology. And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology is a powerful and influential tool in medicine.
Early modern period
Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology". Galen, Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo, Amato Lusitano and William Harvey, are credited as making important discoveries in the blood circulation. Santorio Santorio in the 1610s was the first to use a device to measure pulses (pulsilogium ), and a thermometer to measure temperature.
In 1791 Luigi Galvani described the role of electricity in the exposed frog's nerve. In 1811, Julien Jean CÃÆ'  © sar Legallois studied respiration in surgery and animal lesions and found a respiration center in the medulla oblongata. That same year, Charles Bell finished working on what came to be known as the Bell-Magendie law, which compares the functional differences between the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. In 1824, Franç§ois Magendie described sensory roots and produced the first evidence of a cerebellum role in equilibrium to complete the Bell-Magendie law.
In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced the idea of ​​a division of physiological work, which allowed "to compare and study living beings as if they were machines created by human industry." Inspired in Adam Smith's work, Milne-Edwards writes that "the bodies of all living things, whether animals or plants, resemble a factory... where organs, in proportion to the worker, work endlessly to produce the phenomena that shape the life of the individual. "In more differentiated organisms, functional work can be shared between different instruments or systems (referred to by it as appareils ).
In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the causes of blood clots and inflammation that occurred after previous wounds and surgical wounds. He then discovered and applied antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result reduced the death rate from surgery by a considerable amount.
The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club. The American Physiological Society (APS) is a non-profit organization founded in 1887. The institute, "dedicated to fostering education, scientific research, and information dissemination in physiological science."
In 1891, Ivan Pavlov conducted research on "conditional response" involving the production of dog saliva in response to bells and visual stimuli.
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, especially with the appearance of 1838 from the theories of Cell Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically states that the organism consists of a unit called a cell. The further discovery of Claude Bernard (1813-1878) ultimately led to the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which would then be taken and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929 homeostasis, Cannon means "the maintenance of a stable state in the body and the physiological processes through which they are governed." In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William Beaumont was the first American to take advantage of the practical application of physiology.
Nineteenth-century physiologists such as Michael Foster, Max Verworn, and Alfred Binet, based on Haeckel's ideas, describe what came to be called "general physiology", an integrated science of life based on cell action, later renamed in the 21st century. 20 as a biological cell.
The final modern period
In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human functions eventually spawned the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology. The main characters in these areas include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. More recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.
In 1920, August Krogh won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillary vessels, blood flow was regulated.
In 1954, Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, along with their research team, discovered filaments glide in skeletal muscle, which is known today as the theory of shear filaments.
eminent physiologist
Women in physiology
Initially, women were largely excluded from formal involvement in physiological societies. The American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks. In 1902, the American Physiological Society chose Ida Hyde as the first female member in the community. Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education, seeks to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.
Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Physiological Society, founded in 1876. On 3 July 1915, six women were formally accepted: Florence Buchanan, Winifred Cullis, Ruth C. Skelton, Sarah CM Sowton, Constance Leetham Terry, and Enid M. Tribe. Hundred years of women's election is celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women's Physiological: Centenary Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." (ISBN 978-0-9933410-0-7)
Leading female physiologists include:
- Gerty Cori, along with husband Carl Cori, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of a phosphate-containing glucose form known as glycogen, and its function in the mechanism of eukaryotic metabolism for energy production. In addition, they found the Cori cycle, also known as the lactic acid cycle, which illustrates how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid through lactic acid fermentation.
- Barbara McClintock rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of genetic transposition McClintock is the only recipient of a woman who has won a Nobel Prize that is not shared. Gertrude Elion, along with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for the development of drugs used in the treatment of several major diseases, such as leukemia, some autoimmune disorders, gout, malaria and virus herpes.
- Linda B. Buck, along with Richard Axel, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for the discovery of odorant receptors and the complex organization of olfactory systems.
- FranÃÆ'§oise BarrÃÆ'Â © -Sinoussi, along with Luc Montagnier, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work in the identification of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Elizabeth Blackburn, along with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the composition and genetic function of telomeres and enzymes called telomerase.
Subdisciplines
There are many ways to categorize subdiscplines of physiology:
- based on the taxa studied: human physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, microbial physiology, viral physiology
- based on organizational level: cell physiology, molecular physiology, system physiology, organismal physiology, ecological physiology, integrative physiology
- based on the process that led to physiological variations: developmental physiology, environmental physiology, evolutionary physiology
- based on the ultimate goal of the study: applied physiology (eg, medical physiology), not applied (eg, comparative physiology)
Physiological Society
See also
References
External links
- physiologyINFO.org public information site sponsored by The American Physiological Society
Bibliography
Human physiology
- Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T. Vander Human Physiology . Issue 11, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
- Marieb, E.N. The Essence of Anatomy and Human Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012.
Animal physiology
- Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. Animal Physiology , 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012.
- Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology , second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
- Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation , 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.
- Schmidt-Nielsen, K. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment . Cambridge & amp; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Withers, P.C. Comparative animal physiology . Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.
Plant physiology
- Larcher, W. Physiological plant ecology (4th ed.). Springer, 2001.
- Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. plant physiology . Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992
- Taiz, L., Zieger, E. Plant Physiology (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.
Mushroom physiology
- Griffin, D.H. Mushroom Physiology , Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.
Physiology of Protistan
- Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adoption from Protista. In: cell physiology manual: essence of membrane biophysics . Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
- Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). Biochemistry and Protozoa physiology . Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd Edition.
- Laybourn-Parry J. Functional Biology Protozoa Life-Living . Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984.
Physiology of algae
- Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. Ecology and physiology of seaweed . Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). Physiology of Algae and Biochemistry . Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974.
Physiology of bacteria
- El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). Bacterial Physiology: Molecular Approach . Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008.
- Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. Physiology and Metabolism of Bacteria . Cambridge, 2008.
- Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. Microbial Physiology , 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002.
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