Dissection (from Latin dissecare "to be cropped", also called anatomization ) is to dismember the body of a dead animal or plant to study its anatomical structure. Autopsies are used in pathology and forensic medicine to determine the cause of death in humans. This is done by or shown to biology and anatomy students in secondary schools and medical schools. Less advanced courses usually focus on smaller subjects, such as preserved animals with small formalin, while more advanced courses usually use corpses. As a result, dissection is usually performed in mortuary or in anatomical laboratories.
Dissection has been used for centuries to explore anatomy. Objections to the use of corpses have led to alternative uses including the virtual dissection computer model.
Video Dissection
Overview
The body of plants and animals is dissected to analyze the structure and function of its components. Dissection is practiced by students in biology, botany, zoology, and veterinary science courses, and sometimes in art studies. In medical school, students dissect human corpses to learn anatomy.
Dissection is used to help determine the cause of death in an autopsy (called necropsy in other animals) and is an intrinsic part of forensic treatment.
The main principle in human corpse surgery is the prevention of human disease to the surgery. Prevention of transmission includes the use of protective equipment, ensuring a clean environment, dissection techniques and predisection tests of specimens for the presence of HIV and Hepatitis viruses. Specimens were dissected in mortuary or anatomical laboratories. When provided, they are evaluated for use as "fresh" or "ready" specimens. A "fresh" specimen can be dissected within a few days, maintaining the characteristics of live specimens, for training purposes. A "ready" specimen can be maintained in a solution such as formalin and pre-dissected by an experienced anatomist, sometimes with the help of a diener. This preparation is sometimes called prosection.
Most surgeries involve careful isolation and removal of individual organs, called Virchow techniques. Another more complicated technique involves the removal of all the organs of the body, called the Letulle technique. This technique allows the body to be sent to the funeral director without waiting for surgery to occasionally eat individual organs. The Rokitansky method involves the dissection in situ of the organ block, and the technique involves surgery of three separate organ blocks - the thoracic and cervical regions, the gastrointestinal and abdominal organs, and the urogenital organs. The dissection of individual organs involves access to the area where the organ is located, and systematically removes the anatomical connections of the organ around it. For example, when removing the heart, connecting as superior vena cava and inferior cava veins are separated. If there is a pathological connection, such as fibrous pericardium, then this may be intentionally dissected together with the organ.
Maps Dissection
History
Classic ancient
Human surgery was performed by the Greek physician Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. During this period, the first exploration into full human anatomy was done rather than the basic knowledge gained from 'exploring problem solutions'. Before and after this time, researchers seemed to limit themselves to animals. While there is a deep taboo in Greek culture of human surgery, there is a strong push by the government to build Greece into a center of medical insight. For the time being, Roman law prohibited dissection and autopsy of the human body, so doctors had to use other corpses. Galen, for example, dissects Barbary and other primates, assuming their anatomy is essentially the same as humans.
India
Ancient people rooted in India abandoned artwork on how to kill animals during the hunt. The images that show the most effective way of killing depend on the game being hunted convey a deep knowledge of the external and internal anatomy as well as the relative importance of the organs. That knowledge is largely gained through hunters preparing pre-captured prey. After the cruising lifestyle is no longer needed, it is partially replaced by civilizations formed in the Indus Valley. Unfortunately, there is little left of this time to indicate whether or not the surgery occurred, the civilization was lost to the Aryan invasion.
At the beginning of Indian history (2nd to 3rd centuries), Arthashastra described four ways death can occur and its symptoms: drowning, hanging, choking, or shortness of breath. According to the source, an autopsy should be done in case of premature death.
The practice of dissection developed during the seventh and eighth centuries. It was under their rule that medical education was standardized. This creates the need to better understand human anatomy, thus having an educated surgeon. Dissection is limited by religious taboos on the cutting of the human body. This changes the approach taken to achieve the goal. This process involves loosening the tissues in the water stream before the outer layer is removed with a soft tool to reach the muscles. To perfect the slicing technique, prospective students use squash and pumpkin. This dissecting technique raises an advanced understanding of anatomy and allows them to complete the procedures used today, such as rhino-plasty.
During the Middle Ages the teachings of anatomy from India spread throughout the known world but the practice of dissection was hampered by Islam. The practice of dissection at the university level was not seen again until 1827, when it was done by Pandit Madhusudan Gupta students. Through the 1900s, University teachers had to continue pushing social tabs of surgery, until around 1850 when the university decided it was more effective to train Indian doctors than to bring them from the UK. However, Indian medical schools trained female doctors long before they were in England.
The state of dissection in India is getting worse. The number of hours spent in the dissecting laboratory during medical school has dropped substantially over the past twenty years. The future of anatomy education may be a blend of elegant traditional methods and integrative computer learning. The use of dissection in the early stages of medical training has proven to be more effective in retention of intended information than their simulated counterparts. However, there is little point in computer-generated experience as an overview at a later stage. The combination of these methods is intended to strengthen students' understanding and confidence in anatomy, a subject that is very difficult to master. There is a growing need for anatomists - given that most anatomical laboratories are taught by graduates who hope to complete degrees in anatomy - to continue the long tradition of anatomical education.
Islamic World
Since the beginning of the Islamic faith in 610 A.D., Sharia law has been applied to a greater or lesser extent in Muslim countries, supported by Islamic scholars like Al-Ghazali. Islamic doctors such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) in Al-Andalus, physician Saladin Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt c. 1200, and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt in the 13th century may have performed surgery, but it remains unclear whether human dissection is done or not. Ibn al-Nafis, a physician and jurist, suggests that "the rule of Islamic law has discouraged us from the practice of dissection, along with any compassion in our temperament," indicating that while there is no law against it, not common. Islam dictates that the body is buried as soon as possible, except for religious holidays, and there is no other means of disposal like cremation. Before the tenth century, surgery was not performed on human corpses. The book Al-Tasrif , written by Al-Zahrawi in 1000 A.D., details the different surgical procedures from the previous standard. It is a text of medical education and surgery that includes detailed illustrations. This was later translated and took Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine as the main teaching tool in Europe from the twelfth to the seventeenth century. There are some who are willing to dissect human beings until the 12th century, for the sake of learning, after which it is forbidden. This attitude remained constant until 1952, when the Islamic School of Jurisprudence in Egypt ruled that "the necessity of permitting the forbidden". This decision permits a questionable investigation of death by autopsy. In 1982, a decision was made by a fatwa that if it serves justice, an autopsy is worth the loss. Although Islam now approves autopsies, the Islamic community still disagrees. Autopsies are prevalent in most Muslim countries for medical and judicial purposes. In Egypt it holds an important place in the structure of justice, and is taught in all state medical universities. In Saudi Arabia, whose laws are completely determined by the Shari'ah, autopsies are viewed poorly by the population but can be imposed in criminal cases; human dissection is sometimes found at the university level. An autopsy is conducted for judicial purposes in Qatar and Tunisia. Human dissection is present in the modern Islamic world, but is rarely published due to religious and social stigma.
Tibetan
Tibetan medicine develops a rather sophisticated anatomical knowledge, gained from the old experience with human dissection. Tibetans have adopted sky burial practices because of the country's hard lands, frozen for most of the year, and a lack of wood to cremate. The burial of the heavens begins with the ritual surgery of the deceased, and is followed by feeding portions for vultures at the top of a hill. Over time, knowledge of Tibetan anatomy found its way to Ayurveda and to a lesser extent into Chinese medicine.
Christian Europe
Throughout the Christian history of Europe, human corpses for medical education have undergone various cycles of legalization and prohibition in various countries. Dissection rarely occurred during the Middle Ages, but it was practiced, with evidence at least since the beginning of the 13th century. The practice of autopsy in the Western European Middle Ages was "less well known" because some surviving human surgery or surgery manuscripts still persist. A modern Jesuit scholar claims that Christian theology contributes significantly to the rise of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which human corpses are no longer seen as sacred.
A decree of the 1163 Council of Tours, and the early 14th century decision of Pope Boniface VIII have been misidentified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, misunderstanding or extrapolation of this decree may have caused reluctance to perform such procedures. The Middle Ages witnessed a resurgence of interest in medical studies, including human surgery and autopsy.
Frederick II (1194-1250), the Holy Roman Emperor, decided that whatever was being learned to become a doctor or surgeon had to attend human surgery, which would be held no less than every five years. Several European countries began to legalize criminal dissections executed for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Mondino de Luzzi performed the first recorded public surgery around 1315. At this time, an autopsy was performed by a team of Lectures, lectures, Sectors, who performed the surgery, and Ostensor pointing to an interesting feature.
Italian Galeazzo in Santa Sofia made its first public operation in the north of the Alps in Vienna in 1404.
Vesalius in the sixteenth century undertook much surgery in his extensive anatomical investigations. He is often attacked for his disagreement with Galen's view of human anatomy. Vesalius was the first to lecture and dissect the corpse simultaneously.
The Catholic Church is known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispaniola in 1533 to determine whether they share a soul. They discover that there are two different hearts, and therefore two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, who believed that the soul lives in the heart.
Human dissection is also done by Renaissance artists. Although most choose to focus on the external surface of the body, some like Michelangelo Buonarotti, Antonio del Pollaiolo, Baccio Bandinelli, and Leonardo da Vinci seek a deeper understanding. However, there is no provision for artists to get corpses, so they have to resort to unauthorized ways, such as those sometimes performed by anatomists, such as robbing graves, grabbing bodies, and murder.
Anatomy is sometimes ordered as a form of punishment, such as, for example, in 1806 to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging in Northampton, Massachusetts.
In modern Europe, dissections are routinely conducted in biological and educational research, in medical schools, and to determine the cause of death in autopsies. It is generally considered an important part of learning and is thus culturally accepted. Sometimes it attracts controversy, as when the Odense Zoo decided to dissect the lion's body in public before the "self-selected audience".
English
In England, dissection remained completely banned from the end of the Roman conquest and through the Middle Ages until the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave certain groups of doctors and surgeons some limited rights to dissect corpses. The permit was very limited: by the mid-18th century, the Royal College of Physicians and the Company of Barber-Surgeons were the two groups allowed to perform surgery, and had 10 annual carcasses of corpses among them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in rapidly growing medical schools, the Murder Act 1752 allowed the corpses of executed killers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. In the 19th century, cadaver supplies proved inadequate, as public medical schools grew, and private medical schools did not have legal access to carcasses. A growing black market emerged on carcasses and body parts, leading to the creation of a profession grabbing the body, and the infamous Burke and Hare killing in 1828, when 16 people were killed for their corpses, to be sold to anatomists. The resulting public outcry led to the passage of the 1832 Anatomy Law, which increased the supply of corpse law for dissection.
In the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changes in public sentiment leads to a new debate on the use of corpses in medical education. The Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in England, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to undertake anatomical education without dissection.
United States
In the United States, frog dissection became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and was gradually introduced in the early stages of education. In 1988, about 75 to 80 percent of American high school biology students participated in frog dissection, with a tendency of introduction in primary school. The most common frog of the genus Shutter . Other popular animals for high school dissection at the time of the survey, among vertebrates, fetal pigs, perch, and cats; and among invertebrates, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish, and starfish. Approximately six million animals (2016) are discharged each year in high school USA, excluding training and medical research. Most of it was bought dead from slaughterhouses and farms.
Dissection in high school US became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued his school to complete an alternative project. The court ruled that surgery should be allowed, but Graham could ask to dissect frogs who had died of natural causes rather than those killed for the purpose of surgery; the practical impossibility of procuring dead frogs from natural causes allowed Graham to opt out of the necessary dissection. The lawsuit gives publicity to anti-surgical supporters. Graham appeared in the Apple Computer 1987 for virtual-disection Operation Frog software. The state of California passed the Student Rights Act in 1988 which required students who objected to being allowed to complete an alternative project. Opting out of dissection increased until the 1990s.
In the United States, 17 states together with Washington, D.C. have enacted a law or policy of choice dissection that allows students in primary and secondary education to opt out of dissection. Other countries including Arizona, Hawaii, Minnesota, Texas, and Utah have a more general policy of choosing out on moral, religious or ethical grounds.
As for corpses and medical departments, traditional dissection is supported by professors and students, with some opposition, limiting the availability of dissidents. High-level students who have experienced this method along with their professors agree that "Studying human anatomy with colorful charts is one thing.Using a scalpel and a person who has just lived is a completely different matter."
Acquisition of kadavers
The manner in which cadaveric specimens are obtained is very different according to the state. In the UK, donations are entirely voluntary. Voluntary donations play a role in about 20 percent of specimens in the US and almost all specimens donated in countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe. States that practice voluntary donations may provide the corpse of a criminal or an unclaimed or unknown body for the purpose of surgery. Such practices can lead to a greater proportion of the poor, the homeless and the social outcasts who are voluntarily donated. The bodies donated in one jurisdiction may also be used for the purpose of dissection in another country, whether in all states in the US, or imported from other countries, such as with Libya. For example how a corpse is donated voluntarily, the funeral home along with a voluntary donation program identify the body that is part of the program. After initiating the conversation with relatives by diplomatic means, the corpse is then transported to a registered facility. The body is tested for the presence of the HIV virus and Hepatitis. It is then evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "ready" specimen.
Specimen disposal
Cadaveric specimens for dissection are, in general, discarded with cremation. The deceased can then be buried in the local cemetery. If the family wishes, the deceased's ashes are then returned to the family. Many agencies have local policies to engage, support and celebrate donors. This may include setting up local monuments at the cemetery.
Use in education
Human remains are often used in medicine to teach anatomy or surgical instruction. The corpse was chosen on the basis of its anatomy and availability. They can be used as part of a dissection program that involves a "fresh" specimen so it should be as realistic as possible - for example, when training a surgeon. The corpse may also have been destroyed by a trained instructor. This form of dissection involves the preparation and preservation of specimens for a longer period of time and is generally used for teaching anatomy.
Alternative
Several alternatives to dissection can provide educational benefits over the use of vultures, while eliminating problematic ethical problems. These alternatives include computer programs, lectures, three-dimensional models, films, and other forms of technology. Concern for animal welfare is often the root of objections to animal dissection. Studies show that some students are reluctantly participating in animal surgery for fear of real or perceived punishment or alienation from their teachers and peers, and many do not talk about their ethical objections.
One alternative to the use of corpses is computer technology. At Stanford Medical School, the software combines X-ray, ultrasound, and MRI imaging to display on a large-sized screen on the table. In this variant, the "virtual anatomy" approach is being developed at New York University, students wear three-dimensional glasses and can use pointing devices to "[snatch] through a virtual body, its part is brightly colored like living tissue." This method is claimed "as dynamic as Imax [cinema]".
Advantages and disadvantages
Supporters of the animal-free methodology argue that alternatives to animal dissection can be beneficial to educators by improving teaching efficiency and lowering teaching costs while providing teachers with enhanced potential for adjustment and repeatability of teaching exercises. Those who supported the dissection alternative pointed to studies that have shown that computer-based teaching methods "saves time on academic and non-academic staff... are considered cheaper and effective and fun modes of student learning [and]... for significant reductions in animal use "because there is no regulation or clean-up time, no mandatory safety lessons, and no monitoring of bad behavior with animal carcasses, scissors, and scalpels.
With other non-animal software and methods, there is also inexpensive disposal of equipment or the disposal of hazardous materials. Some programs also allow educators to customize lessons and include internal test modules and quizzes that can track student performance. Furthermore, animals (whether live or dead) can only be used once, while non-animal resources can be used for many years - additional benefits that can result in significant cost savings for teachers, school districts, and state education systems.
Several comparative studies reviewed by colleagues examined the retention of information and performance of students who dissected animals and those who used alternative instructional methods have concluded that educational outcomes of students who are taught basic and advanced biomedical concepts and skills using non-animal methods are equivalent or superior to peers - their colleagues who use animal-based laboratories such as animal dissection.
Elsewhere it has been reported that students' trust and satisfaction increased as much as their readiness for the laboratory and their information and communication search capabilities. Three separate studies at universities across the United States found that students who modeled the body systems of clay were significantly better at identifying human anatomical constituent parts than their classmates who performed animal surgery.
Another study found that students preferred to use clay modeling over animal dissection and performed as well as their cohorts that dissected animals.
In 2008, the National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) affirmed its support for class animal dissection which stated that they "Encourage the presence of live animals in the class with appropriate consideration for age and student maturity... NABT urges teachers to realize that alternatives to dissection has their limitations NABT supports the use of these materials in addition to the educational process but not as an exclusive replacement for the use of the actual organism. "
The National Science Teacher Association (NSTA) "supports including living animals as part of instruction in the K-12 science class because observing and working with animals can directly fuel students' interest in science as well as general respect for life while reinforcing key concepts" Biological Sciences. NSTA also supports offering dissectual alternatives to students who object to exercise.
The NORINA database lists over 3,000 products that can be used as an alternative or supplement for animal use in education and training. This includes alternatives for surgery at school. InterNICHE has a similar database and loan system.
Additional images
Note
References
External links
- How to dissect frog
- Alternative Dissection
- Human Dissection
- Disabled Frog Virtual
- An Alternative to Animal Dissection in the School Science Class
- Research Project on Death and Bodies, last conference: "Death and Dissection" July 2009, Berlin, Germany
- Evolutionary Biology Digital Dissection Collection Dissect photos for study and teaching from the University at Buffalo
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Source of the article : Wikipedia
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