The location anatomical term standard deals explicitly with animal anatomy, including humans.
All vertebrates (including humans) have the same basic pattern - they are symmetrically symmetrical at the early embryonic stage and mostly bilaterally symmetrical in adulthood. That is, they have a mirror image of the left and right if divided in the middle. For this reason, basic directional terms can be considered as those used in vertebrates. By extension, the same term is used for many other organisms (invertebrates).
While these terms are standardized in specific fields of biology, there are inevitable, sometimes dramatic, differences between disciplines. For example, the difference in terminology remains a problem which, to some extent, still separates the human anatomical terminology from that used in the study of various other zoological categories.
Video Anatomical terms of location
Introduction
Requirements for standardized anatomical and zoological locations have been developed, usually based on the Latin and Greek words, to enable all biological and medical scientists to precisely describe and communicate information about the animal's body and its component organs, although the meanings of some terms are often context-sensitive.
Vertebrates and Craniata share great inheritance and common structure, so many of the same terms are used to describe the location. To avoid ambiguity this term is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way.
For humans, one type of vertebrates, the term anatomy may differ from other forms of vertebrates. For one reason, this is because humans have different neuraxis and, unlike animals that depend on four limbs, humans are considered when describing anatomy as a standard anatomic position. So what is in the "upper" man is the head, while the "top" of the dog may be his back, and the "top" of a shock may refer to his left or right side.
For invertebrates, the application of locational terminology standards often becomes difficult or debatable when the morphological differences are so radical that the general concept is not homologous and does not refer to general concepts. For example, many species are not even symmetrically bilateral. In this species, the terminology depends on the type of symmetry they (if any).
Standard anatomical positions
Because animals can change their orientation to their environment, and since complementages such as limbs and tentacles can alter positions with respect to the main body, positional descriptive terms need to refer to animals as in their standard anatomical positions. All descriptions pertain to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has a complement in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.
In humans, this refers to the body in a standing position with the hand on the side and the palm facing forward (thumbs out). While the universal vertebrate terminology used in veterinary medicine will work in human medicine, the term humans is considered too established to be altered.
Compound terms
Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of movement relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates an anterior and lateral position against the body axis (like most major pectoralis muscles). In radiology, an X-ray image can be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the X-ray beam moves from its source to the anterior body wall of the patient through the body to exit through the posterior body wall.
There is no definite limit to the context in which terms can be modified to qualify each other in the combination. Generally the term modifiers are truncated and "o" or "i" are added with prefixes to eligible terms. For example, the animal view of an aspect as well as back and lateral may be called a "dorsolateral" view; and the dorsolateral flattening effect in an organism such as a krait gives its body a triangular cross section. Again, in describing organ morphology or animal habitus like many Platyhelminthes, one might say it as "dorsiventral" leveled as opposed to bilaterally leveled animals such as sea sunfish.
Where desired three or more terms may be diaglutinasi or merged, as in "anteriodorsolateral". Such terms are sometimes used to hyphenate, but the modern tendency is to remove hyphens. However there is little basis for any strict rules to interfere with the convenience options in such use.
Planes
Three basic reference fields are used to describe the location.
- the sagittal plane is a plane parallel to the sagittal suture. All other sagittal planes (referred to as parasagittal planes ) are parallel to it. It is also known as a "longitudinal plane". The plane is a Y-Z field, perpendicular to the ground.
- the median field or the midsagittal field is in the midline of the body, and divides the body into left and right (sinister and dexter). It passes through the head, the spinal cord, the navel and, on the animal, the tail. The median plane may also refer to the midsagittal plane of other structures, such as digits.
- Frontal frontal or coronal divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts (back and front, or posterior and anterior). For embryonic humans, the coronal plane is vertical and the horizontal transversal plane, but for the embryo and quadruped, the coronal plane is horizontal and the transverse plane is vertical. The elongated field is a plane perpendicular to the transversal plane. The coronal plane and the sagittal plane are examples of the longitudinal plane .
- A transverse plane , also known as cross section , divides the body into skull and tail (head and tail).
- In human anatomy
- The transverse field (also known as horizontal ) is the XZ plane, parallel to the ground, which (in humans) separates the superior from the inferior or, in other words, the head of the foot.
- The coronal field (also known as frontal ) is the XY plane, perpendicular to the ground, which (in humans) separates anteriorly from the posterior, the front from the back, the abdomen from dorsal.
Axis
To begin with, different, opposite ends of the polar of the selected organism. By definition, each opposite point pair defines the axis . In symmetrical bilateral organisms, there are 6 opposite poles, giving three axes intersecting at the right angle - the familiar x, y, and z axes of the three dimensional geometry.
The terms "medium", "ipsilateral", "contralateral", "superficial", and "in", while pointing out direction, are relative terms and thus are not true determining a fixed anatomical axis. Also, while "rostrocaudal" and anteroposterior directionality are equivalent in significant parts of the human body, they are different directions in other parts of the body.
Maps Anatomical terms of location
Main terms
Superior and inferior
In terms of anatomy superior (from Latin, which means 'above' on top of something, and inferior (from Latin, which means 'below') for what is under it. For example, in anatomic position the most superior part of the human body is head, and the most inferior is the foot. For the second example, neck men are superior to the chest but lower than the head.
Anterior and posterior
Anterior refers to what lies ahead (from Latin ante , which means "before") and posterior , what is on the back subject (from Latin post , meaning "after"). For example, in the dog the nose is in front of the eye and the tail is considered the most posterior part; In many fish the opening of the gills is posterior to the eye, but it is anterior to the tail.
Medial and lateral
Lateral (from Latin lateralis , which means 'to the side') refers to the sides of the beast, such as the "lateral left" and "lateral right". The term medial (from Latin medius , which means 'middle') is used to refer to structures close to the center of the organism, called the "median plane". For example, in humans, imagine the line in the center of the body from the head though the navel and walking between the two feet - the medial side of the leg is the toe side; The medial side of the knee will be the side adjacent to the other knee. To illustrate the sides of the knee that touch each other's "right medial" and "left medial".
The term "left" and "right" is sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives (Latin: dexter horror ; "left"). However, because the left and right sides are mirror shades, using these words is rather confusing, since the structures are duplicated on both sides. For example, it is very puzzling to say the dolphin dorsal fin is "right" the left pectoral fin, but "left" the right eye, but is much easier and clearer to say "dorsal fin is medial to the chest fin".
Derivative terms include:
- Contralateral (from Latin contra , meaning 'against'): on the opposite side of another structure. For example, the right arm and leg are represented by the left side, the contralateral side of the forebrain.
- Ipsilateral (from Latin ipse , which means 'equal'): on the same side as other structures. For example, the left arm is ipsilateral on the left leg.
- Bilateral (from Latin bis , meaning 'twice'): on both sides of the body. For example, bilateral orchiectomy (removal of the testes on both sides of the body axis) is surgical castration.
- Unilateral (from Latin unus , meaning 'one'): on one side of the body. For example, unilateral paresis is hemiparesis.
Varus and valgus relate to the medial and lateral, respectively, regarding distal segment vectors relative to proximal segment vectors.
Proximal and distal
The term proximal (from Latin proximus , which means 'nearest') and distal (from Latin distare , which means 'standing away from') is used to describe portions of features that are close to or away from the main mass of the body, respectively. Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal and the hands are distal.
These terms are particularly useful when describing a complement such as fins, tentacles, limbs or elongated structures that potentially move separately from the main body. Although the directions indicated by "proximal" and "distal" are always either toward or away from the point of attachment, the given structure can be proximal or distal in relation to other reference points. Thus the elbow is the distal portion of the wound in the upper arm, but is proximal to the wound in the forearm.
This terminology is also used in molecular biology and hence with extensions also used in chemistry. In particular refers to the atomic atomic locus of the entire portion of the given compound.
Center and device
The Center and devices are terms that are closely related to concepts such as proximal and distal, but they are so widely applicable that in many ways their flexibility makes them difficult to define. Speaking casually, they distinguish the near and far, inside and outside, or even the most important organs such as the heart and lungs, from the peripheral organs such as the fingers, which no doubt may be important, but which may not life threatening to throw away. An example of the term's application is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous system, and between the peripheral blood vessels and the central circulation of organs, such as the heart and major blood vessels. The term can also be applied to large and complex molecules such as proteins, where central amino acid residues are protected from antibodies or the like, but peripheral residue is important in docking and other interactions. Other examples include central and peripheral circadian clock , and center versus peripheral vision .
Superficial and deep
These two terms relate to structural distance from the surface of the animal.
Away (from Old English) refers to something farther from the surface of the organism. For example, the external oblique oblique muscle lies deep in the skin. "Deep" is one of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English and not Latin - the Latin anglis term will be "profound" (from the Latin profundus , meaning 'because of the depth').
Superficial (from the Latin superficies , meaning 'surface') refers to something near the outer surface of the organism. For example, in the skin of the epidermis is superficial on the subcutis.
Dorsal and ventral
These two terms, used in anatomy and embryology, refer to the back ( back ) and the front or abdomen ( ventral ) of an organism.
The dorsal (from Latin dorsum , meaning 'back') the surface of an organism refers to the back, or upper side, of an organism. If talking about the skull, the back side is the top.
The ventral (from Latin venter , meaning 'stomach') surface refers to the front, or bottom, of an organism.
For example, in the pectoral fin fin is dorsal to the anal fin, but the stomach to the dorsal fin.
Cranial and caudal
A special term exists to illustrate how close or far something is to the head or tail of an animal. To illustrate how close to an animal's head, there are three different terms used:
- Rectal (from Latin rostrum , meaning 'beak, nose'), which means it lies in the direction of the mouth or nose, or in the case of the brain , toward the end of the frontal lobes.
- Cranial (from the Greek ??????? , meaning 'skull') or cephalic (from the Greek < i>? ????? , meaning 'head').
- Caudal (from Latin cauda , meaning 'tail') is used to describe how close something is at the end of an organism,
For example, on a horse, eyes colored to the nose and rostral to the back of the head.
These terms are generally preferred in veterinary medicine and are not often used in human medicine. In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" being used more generally. The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy, other than embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is only occasionally used in human anatomy. This is because the brain is located in the superior part of the head while the nose is located in the anterior part. Thus the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to the form C (see figure).
Other custom terms and cases
Historic Buildings
The location of the anatomical structure can also be illustrated with respect to different anatomical landmarks.
The structure can be described as being at the level of the specific spinal vertebra, depending on the part of the vertebral column of its structure. Positions are often abbreviated. For example, the structure at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra can be abbreviated as "C4", at the level of the "T4" thoracic vertebra, at the level of the L3 "lumbar vertebra. Because sacrum and coccyx are united, they are not often used to provide location.
References can also take the origin of superficial anatomy, made for landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath. For example, the structure can be described relative to the anterior superior iliac spine, medial malleolus or medial epicondyle.
Anatomical lines, theoretical lines drawn through the structure, are also used to describe anatomical locations. For example, the mid-clavicle line is used as part of a heart examination in medicine to feel heart rate in the heart.
Mouth and teeth
Fields such as osteology, paleontology and dentistry apply location-specific terms to describe the mouth and teeth. This is because even though teeth can be aligned with their primary axes in the jaw, several different relationships require special terminology as well; for example the teeth can also be rotated, and in such contexts the terms "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous. Terms such as "distal" and "proximal" are also redefined to mean long distances or close to the symphysis of the mandible. The terms used to describe structures including "buccal" (from Latin bucca , meaning 'cheeks') and "palatal" (from Latin) refer to structures close to the cheeks and hard palate of each, respectively.
Hands and feet
Some special anatomical terms for hands and feet
To improve clarity, the term palmar (from Latin palma , meaning 'palm') is usually used to describe the front of the hand, and dorsal is the back of the hand. For example, the top of a dog's claw is its dorsal surface; bottom, either palmar (front or front) or plantar (behind rear) surface. The palmar fascia is the palmar to the muscle tendon that flexes the finger, and the dorsal vein arch is so named because it is on the side of the foot.
Volar can also be used to refer to the bottom of the palm or sole, which is also sometimes used to describe the location as palmar and plantar . For example, a volar bearing is at the bottom of the hand, finger, leg, and toe.
These terms are used to avoid confusion when describing the median surface of the hand and what constitutes an anterior or posterior surface - the anterior can be used to describe the palm of the hand, and "posterior" can be used to describe the back of the hand and arm. This confusion can arise because the forearm can become pronation and supination.
Likewise, in the forearm, for clarity, the side is named after the bones. The structure closer to the radius is radial , the structure closer to the ulna is ulnar , and the structures related to both bones are called radioulnar >. Similarly, in the lower leg, the structure close to the tibia (the dry bone) is tibial and the structure near the fibula is fibular (or peroneal ).
Rotation direction
Most anatomical location terms are relative to linear motion (translation) along the X-Y and Z axes, but there are other degrees of freedom as well, in particular, the rotation around one of the three axes.
Anteversion and retroversion is the term complementary anatomical location, which explains the extent to which anatomical structures are rotated forward (towards the front of the body) or backward (towards the back of the body) respectively , relative to some datum positions. The term also describes the position of surgical implants, such as arthroplasty.
- Anteversion refers to an anatomical structure advanced further advanced than normal, either pathologically or accidentally. For example, there may be a need to measure bone neck anteversion such as femur. For example, a woman's uterus is usually anteverted, slightly forward-tilt advanced . A misaligned pelvis may be anteverted, which means it tilts forward to some relevant degree.
- Retroversion is a rotation around the same axis as anteversion, but in the opposite sense, that is, tilt back . The affected structure is described as retrovert. Like anteversion, retroversion is a really common term and can be applied to oblique slopes of hard structures such as bones, soft organs such as uteri, or surgical implants.
Other directed terms
Some other terms are also used to describe the location. These terms are not used to form fixed axes. The requirements include:
- Axial (from Latin axis , meaning 'axis'): around the central axis of the organism or extremity. Two related terms, "abaxial" and "adaxial", refer to locations far from and towards the central axis of the organism, respectively
- Parietal (from the Latin paries , meaning 'wall'): relates to the wall of the body cavity. For example, the parietal peritoneum is the inner lining of the abdominal cavity. Parietal can also refer specifically to the skull's bone parietal or related structure.
- Posteromedial (from Latin posterus , meaning 'coming after', and medius , meaning 'middle'): located in the middle -mediate posterior surface.
- Terminal (from Latin terminus , meaning 'boundary or end') on the structural extremity (usually projecting), as in "... antennae with sensory hair terminal ".
- Visceral and viscus (from the Latin viscera , meaning 'internal organ'): relates to the organs in body cavity. For example, the abdomen is covered with a layer called visceral peritoneum as opposed to parietal pertoneum. Viscus can also be used to mean "organs". For example, the stomach is the viscus in the abdominal cavity.
Prefixes, suffix, and other modifiers
Directional and locational prefixes can modify many anatomical and morphological terms, sometimes in the use of formal standards, but are often attached arbitrarily according to need or convenience.
Prefix
- Sub - (from Latin sub , which means 'prepositions below, near, almost etc') is added as a prefix, with or without hyphens, qualified in various senses. Consider subcutaneous as meaning beneath the skin, subterminal which means near the end of the structure. Sub- can also mean "almost" or "more-or-less" ; for example subglobular means almost spherical. In many sub-applications it is similar in app to "hypo -"
- Hypo - (from Ancient Greek ??? , meaning 'below') Like "sub" in various senses as in hypolingual nerves under the tongue, or hypodermal fat under the skin
- Infra - (from Latin infra , which means 'prepositions below, under dll') Similar to "sub"; as opposed to super - and supra - , as in infratemporal space or infraorbital .
- Inter - (from the Latin inter , meaning 'between'): between two other structures. For example, the navel is medium to the left arm and the contralateral foot (right). The intercostal muscle runs between the ribs.
- Super- or Supra - (from Latin super, supra , meaning 'above, above, outside etc' ) is added as a prefix, with or without hyphens, as in superciliary curls or supraorbital
Suffix
- -ad (from Latin ad ', meaning' heading or up ')
Generally when, for example, one of the anatomical features is closer to something than another, one can use expressions like "closer distal end" or "distal". However, the unambiguous and concise convention is to use the Latin suffix -ad , which means "to", or sometimes "for". So for example, " distad " means "to the distal direction," and "distad from the femur" means "outside the femur in the distal direction". The suffix can be used very widely, as in the following examples: anteriad (towards the anterior), apicad (towards the top), basad (towards the end of basal), caudad, centrad, cephalad (towards the end of cephalic), craniad, dextrad, dextrocaudad, dextrocephalad, distad , dorsad, ectad (towards ectal, or exterior, direction), entad (towards interior), laterad, mediad, mesad, neurad, orad, posteriad, proximad, rostrad, sinistrad, sinistrocaudad, sinistrocephalad, ventrad .
Certain animals and other organisms
The wide variety of body shapes present in the invertebrates presents a difficult problem when trying to apply standard direction terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by analogy of vertebrate anatomy, and appropriate new terms are applied as needed. Some of these borrowed terms apply widely in most invertebrates; for example proximal, literally "close" refers to the nearest fraction part where it joins the body, and distally, literally means "standing away from" is used for the furthest part of the point of attachment. In all cases, the use of the term depends on the body plan of the organism.
For example, especially in different headless organisms for wider application reasons, "anterior" is usually preferred.
Man
Since humans are almost bilateral symmetrical organisms, anatomical descriptions usually use the same terms as in vertebrates and other members of the taxonomic group Bilateria. However, for historical and other reasons, standard human directional terminology has some differences from those used for other symmetrical bilateral organisms.
The term zootomy and anatomy begin to be used when all scientific communications occur in Latin. In the original Latin form they mean "anterior" and "posterior" respectively are ahead (or before ) and behind (or < i> after ), "dorsal" and "ventral" are towards the spine and to the abdomen , and the "superior" and "inferior" and below .
Humans, however, have a rare nature of having an upright body. This keeps their anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral directions the same, and an inferior/superior direction is required.
Most animals, in turn, are able to move relative to their environment. So while "ascending" may refer to the human head standing, the same term ("ascending") may be used to refer to the abdominal direction of a human being. It is also necessary to use certain knowledge of anatomically to apply terminology clearly: For example, while the ear will be superior for human shoulders, this fails when describing the armadillo. , where the shoulders are above the ear. Thus, in animal terminology, the ear will skull into (ie, "toward the head of") the shoulders of armadillo, dog, kangaroo, or other land vertebrates, including humans. Likewise, while the stomach is considered to be
Although it is possible to introduce a completely consistent axis system between humans and other vertebrates with two separate pairs of axes, used exclusively for the head (eg, anterior/posterior and inferior/superior) and the other specifically for the torso (eg , back/ventral and tail/rostral, or "towards the tail"/"toward the beak"), doing so would require renaming many anatomical structures.
Asymmetric and spherical organisms
In organisms with changeable forms, such as amoeboid organisms, most directions terms are meaningless, because organisms are not constant and there is no clear axis. Similarly, in spherical symmetrical organisms, nothing distinguishes one line through the center of organisms from others. The unlimited number of triads of straight axes can be determined, but the choice of such axes will not be useful, since no one separates the choice of the triad from the other. In such organisms, only terms such as shallow and within , or sometimes proximal and distal descriptive.
Extensive organisms
In organisms that maintain a constant shape and have one dimension longer than another, at least two direction terms can be used. Long or longitudinal axes are defined by the point at the opposite end of the organism. Similarly, the perpendicular transverse can be defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. There is usually no basis for the definition of the third axis. Usually such organisms are planktonic protists (free-swimming), and are almost always seen on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases, the third axis can be defined, especially where non-terminal sitostom or other unique structures are present.
Some extant protists have a distinctive body tip. In these organisms, the tip of the mouth (or equivalent structure, such as the sitostom in Paramecium or Stentor ), or the tip that usually refers to the organomotion organisms (such as the end of the flagel in Euglena ), usually defined as the final anterior . The opposite end then becomes the posterior end . True, this terminology will only apply to planktonic organisms (usually not attached to the surface), although this term can also be applied to the sessile (usually attached to the surface).
Organisms attached to substrates, such as sponges, or some protists like animals also have different ends. Part of the organism attached to the substrate is usually referred to as basalt end (from Latin base , which means 'support/foundation'), while the furthest end of the attachment is referred to as apical end (from Latin apex , meaning 'peak/tip').
Radial symmetrical organism
Radial symmetrical organisms include organisms in the Radiata group - especially jellyfish, sea anemones and corals and comb jelly. Adult echinoderms, such as starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and others are also included, because they are pentaradial, which means they have five discrete symmetry rotations. Echinoderm larvae are not included, because they are bilaterally symmetrical. Radial symmetrical organisms always have a unique axis.
Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no hole from the intestine (coelenteron). For this reason, the end of the organism by mouth is referred to as oral end (from Latin os , meaning 'mouth'), and the opposite surface is aboral end (from the Latin ab - , which means 'away from').
Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians have no distinctive axes. "Lateral", "dorsal", and "ventral" have no meaning in the organism, and all can be replaced by the general term peripheral (from Ancient Greece ???? , meaning 'around'). Medial can be used, but in the case of radiating shows the center point, rather than the central axis as in vertebrates. Thus, there are several possible radial axes and medio-peripherals (half-) axis . However, it should be noted that some symmetrical comb bracelets have different "tentarak" and "pharynx" axes and thus are anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical animals.
Like vertebrates, a complement that moves independently of the body (tentacles in cnidarians and jelly comb), has a definite proximodistal axis (Fig. 9).
Spider
Two special terms are useful in describing the views of arachnid and pedipalpus feet. Prolateral refers to the surface of the foot closest to the anterior end of the arachnid body. Retrolateral refers to the surface of the foot closest to the posterior end of the arachnid body.
Because of the unusual nature and position of Araneae's (spider) eyes, and their importance in taxonomy, evolution and anatomy, special terminology with related abbreviations has become established in arachnology. Araneae usually has eight eyes in four pairs. All eyes are in the carapace of prosoma, and their size, shape and location are characteristics of various families of spiders and other taxa. In some taxa not all four pairs of eyes are present, relevant species have only three, two, or a pair of eyes. Some species (especially troglobites) do not have a functioning eye at all.
In what is seen as the most likely ancestral order of Araneae's eyes, there are two lines that are roughly parallel, horizontal, symmetrical, transverse lines of the eye, each containing two pairs of symmetrically placed, each called: anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median eyes (AME) and (PME).
As a rule it is not difficult to guess which eyes are in living or preserved specimens, but sometimes it can. Despite the fact that in some species one or more couples may be missing, sometimes the eyes of the posterior and anterior rows may be very close to each other, or even fused. Also, either one line or both may be too curved that some eyes that are notionally anterior may actually lie posteriorly to some eyes in the posterior row. In some species, the curve is so protruding that the eye appears to be arranged into two rows of parallel anteroposterior eyes.
See also
- Standard anatomical positions
- The term anatomical motion
- Anatomical muscle
- The term bone anatomy
- The anatomy of the term neuroanatomy
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